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82 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Race
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A human group with some observable common biological feature that members of society consider important.
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Ethnicity
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Groups with a shared cultural heritage.
Race:Biological Ethnicity: Cultural |
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George Simmel- The Stranger
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A perceptual tool that humans use to identify “us” and “them”
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Objective/Subjective Definitions of Race
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An objective definition of race treats race as a social fact—e.g. race exists, it can be measured, and there are objective facts associated with racial categories.
A subjective definition of race recognizes that race is socially defined and that this definition varies according to the socio-historical situation. |
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Intergroup conflict vs. Interracial conflict
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Intergroup Conflict: Extermination, Expulsion, Apartheid
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Cultural Pluralism
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Assimilation and Accomodation are made.
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Assimilation vs Accomodation
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Assimilation: As time passes, a given ethnic group surrenders its distinctive cultural features and disappears into the dominant culture (i.e. melting pot, one flavor remains).
Some elements of the old group may remain - e.g. religion, but are not emphasized. Accommodation: As time passes, ethnic differences between groups do not disappear, but rather become unimportant, and in some cases even valued (i.e. gumbo). |
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Gordon Allport - The Nature of Prejudice
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Allport studied the effects of prejudice on group interaction.
Contact overcomes prejudice only when people meet on equal terms to cooperate pursuing common goals. Contact accompanied by inequality and competition breeds prejudice and reinforced dominant group’s views of their superiority, and subordinate group’s views of their inferiority. |
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Gender Inequality
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Gender inequality is endemic to all societies.
-- Power, prestige, property is unequally controlled by men in the majority of societies -- Sex ratios are social structures that influence the behaviors and choices of individuals. |
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Causes of unbalanced Sex Ratios
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Geographic mobility, Female Infanticide, Health and Diet, Differential Life Expectancy, War, Sexual Practices
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Guttentag and Secord
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Argue that from a general supply-demand account of sex ratios, the more “scarce” gender would have the most power.
Where women are scarce, they are treated as precious property, but without rights of their own. Where women are in excess, there is much less gender inequality, but men are inclined to be less dependable as spouses and lovers. |
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Sex Ratios and Gender Roles
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Athens—More men than women.
Women were uneducated and were not given political power Sparta—More women than men. Women enjoyed property rights, rights to divorce, and obtained advanced educations. Late Medieval Europe—More women than men. Observed a medieval women’s movement where women sought to gain economic, religious, and political roles outside of traditional roles of wives and mothers. |
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Dyadic Power
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The capacity of each member of a dyad to improve his or her will on the other member.
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Structural Power
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Power based on statuses within social structures.
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Women's movement
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The Feminist Movement—Origins in equity and power relations (1960s)
Feminism is an ideology with three essential features: Opposition to all forms of stratification based on gender Belief that biology does not consign females to inferior status A sense of common experience and purpose among women to direct their efforts to bring about change. |
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Feminism, three essential features
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Opposition to all forms of stratification based on gender
Belief that biology does not consign females to inferior status A sense of common experience and purpose among women to direct their efforts to bring about change. |
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The sexual revolution
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Sexual liberation coincided with the feminist movement AND changes in sex ratios (more women than men)
The sexual revolution had two contradictory effects: Increased liberation from patriarchic gender norms. Increased dehumanization of women as sexual objects. |
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Intersection of gender and race
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Gender and race intersect to create unique outcomes for members of these groups under different circumstances.
Sex ratios are increasingly unbalanced for minority groups. African Americans (more women than men) Hispanics (more men than women) |
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Census
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A population count, often recorded in terms of such categories as age, occupation, material status, and the like.
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Sex structure
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The proportions of males and females in a population.
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Age structure
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The proportion of persons of various age groups making up a total population.
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Birth cohort
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All persons born within a given time period, usually one year.
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Pre-Industrial population trends
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Very high death rates – parasitic, infectious diseases, (disproportionately killing children), and unstable food supply account for inflated death rates.
During the hunting-gathering phase, life expectancy averaged 20 years (some estimates go as high as 30 years). Most important factor governing life expectancy was high infant mortality (5 years or less) at 50 percent. |
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Kingsley Davis
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Produced for a formal theory of demographic transition associated with the process of modernization.
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Contraception and wanted fertility
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During the Post-Industrial period wanted fertility has dropped. Contraception has gone up.
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Expansive population structure
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An age structure in which each younger cohort is larger than the one before it; such a population is growing.
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Stationary population structure
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An age structure in which younger birth cohorts are the same size as older ones were before mortality reduced them; such a population neither grows nor declines.
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Replacement-level fertility
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(also called zero population growth) Point at which the number of births each year equals the number of deaths.
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Baby boom
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A brief period of high fertility in many Western industrial nations immediately following WWII.
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Gray nations
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Older aged populations
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Demography
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Literally, written description of the people; the field of sociology devoted to the study of human populations with regard to how they grow, decline, or migrate.
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Rule 69 and doubling time
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Doubling time is approximately equal to 69 divided by the growth rate, with “Rule 69” derived from the natural logarithm (ln) of 2 = 0.693147181, multiplied by 100.
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Rule 110 and tripling time
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To find tripling time, we derive the ln of 3 = 1.09861229, multiply by 100 for 109.86, then divide by the rate of growth.
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Thomas Robert Malthus
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Thomas Robert Malthus argued that human populations will always rise to the level of subsistence.
Malthus identified the limits to growth that kept populations proportionate to the food supply. |
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Geometric versus Arithmetic growth
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Arithmetic growth- A constant rate of growth (or decline) that speeds up as an increasingly larger number of units is added (or subtracted) each cycle.
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Positive checks on growth
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chronic malnutrition, violent death, disease (where the population exceeds the food supply)
Preventative checks:(moral restraint)marital delay and sexual abstinence |
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Demographic transition and stages
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1
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Longevity versus lifespan
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Lifespan- Oldest age achieved by humans.
Longevity- The ability of human life to persist from one year to the next; ability to resist death. |
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Bi-modal distribution of death
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1
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Social causes of longevity
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2 categories:
1. Social and economic infrastructure 2. Lifestyle behaviors |
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David Phillips
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subtle psychosocial forces influence mortality outcomes; ex. Suicide rates spike after suicide of famous person; persons born in “ill-fated” years in Chinese astrology have significantly lower life expectancy (a self- fulfillment effect)
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Leading causes of death in the US
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1. Heart disease 2. Malignant neoplasm 3. Cerebrovascular disease; 4. Chronic respiratory disease 5. Accidents
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Occupations and mortality risk
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Bureau of Labor Statistics: timber cutters, roofers, and truck drivers more likely to die on job than dentists, professors, and financial analysts (DUH)
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Life expectancy by race and gender
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Race/ethnicity Male Female Diff.
Total population 74.5 79.8 5.3 White, non-Hispanic 75.0 80.1 5.1 Hispanic 77.6 83.4 5.8 Asian/Pacific Island 82.0 87.2 5.2 American Indian 77.0 82.2 5.2 Black, non-Hispanic 68.4 75.3 6.9 |
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Fertility transition
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the shift from a condition of high fertility characterized by limited planned individual control over reproduction, to a low (or very low) fertility where women and couples exercise maximum control over reproduction (ex. Fall into depression/recession; control # kids have due to $$)
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Fecundity
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the physical capability to birth children; increases with menarche (onset of menstruation, typically in early teens), peaks in the 20’s, and declines gradually with the onset of menopause (end of menstruation)
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Infertility range
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In the US, infertility range is estimated at 7-9%
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Menarche
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1
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Menopause
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1
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Age-fertility curve
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Hutterites
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used as benchmark for natural fertility, absent of social and cultural influences
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Explanations for high fertility
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Children as security and labor
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In pre-modern societies, the definition of children as sources of security and labor encouraged high fertility.
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Desire for sons
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In traditional societies, preferences for male children is particularly pronounced; women are devalued economically/net-economic loss for families
Studies show that families in less developed countries prefer 2 male children (one heir and one spare) |
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Richard Easterlin
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demographic economist (the goal of demographic transition is equilibrium-a balance of births and deaths) who advanced a supply-demand framework for understanding fertility rates
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Supply-Demand framework of fertility
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at a micro-econ. Level, households strive to balance the potential supply of children (determined by the randomness of fecundity under the condition of unregulated fertility) against the demand for children (determined by the socially and individually preferred number of children); rationally, if supply exceeds demand (as a function of decreasing infant mortality) households adjust their want of children by some method of fertility regulation
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Fertility and education
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1
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Internal vs International migration
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Internal migration – a permanent change of residence within country
International migration – moving between countries |
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Push-pull theory of migration
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Population migration is based on several push and pull factors. Developed by Ernest Ravenstein
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Ernest Ravenstein
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launched the most common theory of migration, the push-pull theory
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Age-migration curve
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Peaks in the early 20s and sharply goes down
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Population implosion
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negative growth; probable in more developed counties like Japan (estimated to be 14% smaller by 2050) and Italy (22% decrease by 2050)
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6 major shifts in human population
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1. The invention of agriculture permitted the population to begin to grow rapidly
2. Industrialization stimulated a long period of uninterrupted growth 3. Population growth was halted by a decline in fertility, called “the demographic transition” 4. After WWII, a population explosion in the less developed nations was caused by decreased mortality and increase food supplies 5. Sharply falling fertility in most of the less developed nations as they underwent the demographic transition 6. Fertility rates have continued to fall and now are well below the level needed for replacement |
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Pre-industrial cities
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until recently, cities were small, filthy, disease-ridden, crowded, and disorderly; typically contained 5,000-10,000 inhabitants, remained small because of poor transportation, disease. Sewage and garbage, pollution, people packed together due to walls or slow transportation means, couldn’t build up; dangerous and Dark
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Agricultural Revolution
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preindustrial farmers could support only a very small urban population, and only by accepting a very low standard of living; industrial revolution changed this; farm productivity sky-rocketed; farmers became eager to sell crops to cities; new machines, animal breeds, varieties of plants, weed sprays, fertilizers, crop rotation, drainage and irrigation systems—(the application of science and engineering to farming)
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Specialization and urban growth
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1
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Metropolis and SMSA
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Metropolis- “mother city”- a city and its sphere of influence
SMSA-Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area – according to the US Census, a central city (w/at least 50,000 residents) and all surrounding countries where 75% of the labor force is not in agriculture and where either 15% of the workers commute to the city or 25% of the workers commute from the city Created to identify the sphere of influence of a city; the area whose inhabitants depend on the central city for jobs, recreation, news, and a sense of common community |
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Commuting
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according to 2000 Census: avg. American 25.5 min to go from work to home, 76% commute alone, 12%carpool, 5% public transport’
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Suburbs
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smaller community in the immediate vicinity of a city, being part of a metropolitan area; not rural but less than urban; “suburban era” began after WWII
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Theory of ethnic succession
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closely resembles the economic explanation of prejudice and discrimination; argued that new immigrant groups huddle together in segregated neighborhoods upon arriving to America; however, as begin to rise in the stratification system these changes “tend to be registered in changes of location” As new groups succeed in America, they move out of ethnic hoods. Occurs 1st because can afford to live in better hoods; 2nd because no longer so tied to their traditional culture; 3rd have shed the stigma of low status: no longer regarded as undesirable neighbors
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Robert Park and Ernest Burgess
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Proposed that ethnic and racial segregation in cities was based primarily on economic and status differences; proposed
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Index of dissimilarity
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measures degree of segregation or integration of a hood; contrasts the racial and ethnic makeup of a hood with the racial and ethnic makeup of the whole metropolitan area; if they are the same score = zero (fully integrated). If single group lives in one area and other racial and ethnic groups live in the metropolitan area, hood scores 100 – wholly segregated
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Racial segregation
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Intentional separation of two or more races of people
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Effects of Crowding
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supposed effect of urban living, “psychic overload” gained widespread attention in ‘60’s as potential hazard caused by population growth; many critics have proposed that the population density of cities causes serious physical and mental pathologies; studies did not succeed in proving this
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Gemeinshaft vs Gesellschaft
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Gemeinshaft-identifies the qualities of life thought to be being lost because of urbanization; describes small, cohesive communities such as the farming village; ppl know one another well and are connected by bonds of daily interaction; ppl agree to the norms, and few fail to conform
Gesellschaft- People tend to be strangers, only united by self-interest; not by any sense of common purpose or identity |
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Modern definition of urban
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2000 Census: “an urbanized area has a core census block or block group with a population density of at least 1,000 people per square mile (386 per sq kilometer) and surrounding census blocks that have an overall density of at least 500 people per sq mile (193 per sq kilometer) that together encompass a population of at least 50,000 people
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Causes of Urban Transition
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1. Internal rural-to-urban migration
2. natural increases (excess births over deaths) 3. international urban migration (resource depletion push) 4. reclassification from urban to rural |
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261 Metropolitan Areas in US
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In the year 2000
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Lewis Mumford
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city growth connected with economic development; “There is indeed no single urban activity that has not been performed successfully in isolated units in the open country. But there is one function that the city alone can perform, namely synthesis and synergy of the many separate parts of continually bringing them together in a common meeting place where direct face-to-face intercourse is possible. The office of the city, then, is to increase the variety, the velocity, the extent, and the continuity of human intercourse.”
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George Kingsley Zipf
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developed a rank-size rule to describe city hierarchy; discovered that city population order generally obeyed a mathematical property or identity: P=P/R
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Douglas Massey and Nancy Denton
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Douglas Massey and Nancy Denton refer to spatial segregation by race as American Apartheid
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4 factors of Black-White Spatial Segregation
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Massey and Denton created 4 factors:
1.Mortgage lending discrimination 2. Intimidation of blacks seeking to reside in white areas 3. Suburban neighborhood covenants (agreements) 4. Federally sponsored public housing |
