Sociology Final Exam

Front 1

------------ maintains that there were 80-92 Pueblo settlements along the Rio Grande and their population numbered 20,000 to 100,000 at the time of the conquest.

Back 1

Albert H. Schroeder

Front 2

By -----, according to Spanish colonial sources, there were: approximately 30,000 to 80,000 Pueblo inhabitants in 150 settled communities. There were 200 Spaniards.

Back 2

1598

Front 3

Between -------- there was a dramatic decline in the number of Pueblo settlements, about one village disappeared per year.

Back 3

1600-1643

Front 4

Spanish colonial records show that in 1638 there were about -------Pueblo inhabitants in 43 villages. The number of Spaniards increased to approx. 2000. As the native American population declined the Spanish colonial authorities granted encomienda labor on the basis of native American family lines.

Back 4

40,000

Front 5

In ---- there was a widespread famine among the Pueblo communities. The Spanish colonial regime had to adjust to the labor shortage, so encomienda labor shifted to specific native Americans rather than villages or families.

Back 5

1659

Front 6

1679 Spanish colonial records show that there were ------- Pueblo inhabitants and ------Spaniards in the territory the Spanish crown controlled in New Mexico

Back 6

17,000

2,347

Front 7

From 1680 to 1693 the Pueblo communities were--------. We do not know what happened to the population during this period.

Back 7

independent

Front 8

In 1693, about ---- Spaniards (67 Spanish families) participated in the reconquest of New Mexico.

Back 8

800

Front 9

By 1700 Spanish records refer to a Native American population of about --------.

Back 9

14,000

Front 10

what was the new mexico population in 1760

Back 10

20,400

Front 11

What was the New Mexico Population in 1770

Back 11

25000

Front 12

what was the population in 1860?

Back 12

93,516

Front 13

what was the pop. in 1880?

Back 13

119,560

Front 14

what is the pop. in 1890 ?

Back 14

160,282

Front 15

what is the pop. in 1900?

Back 15

195,310

Front 16

what was the pop in 1910?

Back 16

327,301

Front 17

Such dramatic increments were the result of migration into New Mexico as well as a reduction in the --------.

Back 17

infant mortality

Front 18

The -------- and the commercial revolution obviously enhanced the increases in population.

Back 18

railroads

Front 19

The demographic change also indicated a significant change in other areas:

Back 19

a) food supplies are increasing because of an improvement in production and the importation of foods from outside New Mexico

b) an overall economic expansion will take place because of the population increase as more people meant more economic activity, greater demand for labor and goods, and much housing construction.

Front 20

1920 360,350
1930 423.317
1940 531,818
1950 681,187
1960 ?????
1970 1,016,000
1980 1,302,894
1990 1,519,889
1995 1,686,299
2000 1,821,078

Back 20

951,023

Front 21

Although the population increased in absolute terms in rural and urban areas, the rate of growth was much faster in the --------

Back 21

urban areas

Front 22

In 1850 there was only one town with more than 1,000 inhabitants in New Mexico. By 1900 there were 10 towns with over ------ persons. And in 1950 there were 24 cities with more than ------- persons.

Back 22

2000

20,000

Front 23

From 1850 to 1910 the New Mexico population increased by 245,754 inhabitants. That was a ---- increase in 60 years. Or a yearly average of 5%. The most significant increase was 1900-1910: when the yearly average was 6.7%

Back 23

30.2%

Front 24

From 1910 to 1960 the population continued to increase by 623,722 persons. That is 2 and a half times more than in the first 50 years. That was a ---- increase

Back 24

19%

Front 25

From 1960 to 2000 the population continued to increase by ----------. This was a larger increment than the earlier periods, and in less time. That was a 19.1% increase in 40 years.

Back 25

870,055

Front 26

Richard V. Adkisson and James T. Preach in the study Population Censuses, Estimates, and Projections (March 2006) wrote, -----

Back 26

“New Mexico’s population increased by 16.3 percent in the 1980s (1.303 million to 1.515 million) and by 20.1 percent in the 1990s (1.515 million to 1.819 million). In both the 1980s and 1990s, New Mexico’s population growth rate was substantially higher than the nation’s growth rate (9.8 percent in the 1980s and 13.1 percent in the 1990s).”

Front 27

The US government's Census Bureau estimates that the population of New Mexico in 2030 would be approximately 2.1 million, which means a total growth of just 15.4% in about ------. That is certainly much less than the pattern since 1910 and almost half of what the US Census expects to be the growth for the entire nation (29.4%). The University of New Mexico’s Bureau of Business and Economic Research (BBER), on the other hand - using a different methodology - claims that by 2030 the increase will be twice the historic pattern (which had been close to 20%). The BBER expects an increment of 40.3%. That would mean a total population in 2030 of almost 2.7 million.

Back 27

24 years

Front 28

At present the population of the state is approximately-------.

Back 28

1.9 million.

Front 29

The concept of -----can be defined in different ways. There is no generalized agreement in the Social Sciences as to the best definition of the term.

Back 29

"rural"

Front 30

------ can be defined in occupational, demographic, ecological, social and even cultural terms.

Back 30

Rural

Front 31

What is the occupational defintion of rural?

Back 31

occupational definitions of the rural concentrate on the percentage of the labor force that is involved in agricultural activities. A rural society, consequently, will be one in which 50% or more of the work force is employed or works in agriculture. Thus, it is possible to have a rural labor force while the majority of the population may reside in urban areas

Front 32

what is teh ecological definition of rural

Back 32

n ecological or residential definition of rural refers to the percent of the total population living in urban areas as opposed to rural areas. The critical question in an ecological definition of the rural is the size of human settlements as well as their density. There is no agreement on what is the cutting off point when a settlement is rural as opposed to urban. In other words, the quantitative definition of rural (or urban) is arbitrary. The U.S. Census, for example, uses a population size of 2,500 persons or more to indicate that the settlement is "urban". Consequently, less than 2,500 persons indicates a rural area. The United Nations, however, uses another population size to distinguish rural from urban: 20,000 inhabitants within a well defined area. [A U.N. report states, “Urban-rural classification of population in internationally published statistics follows the national census definition, which differs from one country or area to another. National definitions are usually based on criteria that may include any of the following: size of population in a locality, population density, distance between built-up areas, predominant type of economic activity, legal or administrative boundaries and urban characteristics such as specific services and facilities.”

Front 33

define the social defintion of rural

Back 33

some social scientists maintain that rural societies share some social characteristics such as a homogeneous population (with similar values, norms, and ways of life). This perspective is somewhat similar to the definitions of "peasant community" found among anthropologists of the functionalist school [Robert Redfield, George Foster, and others]. Social relations in the rural community, it is argued, is highly personalized, primary, and intimate. In fact, the basic social features of the rural community coincide with the usual definition or characterization of a "traditional" society

Front 34

For our purpose a rural society will be defined on the basis of demographic and economic features. In other words, ----

Back 34

a rural society refers to a situation in which a portion of the population works in agriculture and lives near its place of work. Moreover, a rural society has a set of social institutions that are organized around the process of agricultural production.

Front 35

New Mexico's rural population has changed since 1598. However, we do not have accurate figures pre 1850.The record became moderately more accurate from ----

Back 35

1850 on.

Front 36

Between 1850 and 1900 the rural population of NM grew from 57,008 to 167,929. That was an increment of almost 111,000 persons or 3.5 per year. From 1900-1950 the population reached 366,551 inhabitants in the rural areas. The rural population almost doubled. From 1950 to 2006 the population increased by 308,469 persons or a total of -------. As the commercial revolution advanced the real population growth took place in New Mexico's urban areas.

Back 36

675,020

Front 37

Year
Rural
1900
86.0

1910
85.8

1920
82.0

1930
74.8

1940
66.8

1950
49.8

1960
34.1

1970
30.2

1980
27.9

1990
27.0

2000
25.0

2006
23.5

what do these dates pertain to?

Back 37

the rural population over time

Front 38

what is the dictionary defintion?

Back 38

The typical dictionary definition of “urban” states that the word is an adjective, thus, it refers to a quality, meaning “of, in, or comprising cities” and that it is “characteristic of cities.” (Random House Dictionary). However, dictionary definitions are not very useful because they are not sensitive to those features that concerns Social Science

Front 39

How does a geographer describe urbanization

Back 39

A geographer, for example, goes further than the popular dictionary definition and notes that “urban” refers to a particular location or area. Susan Mayhew, for example, states “An area may be classified as urban by its role as a central place for a tributary area, providing a range of shops, banks, and offices. A high density of population may also be used as an indicator but the city may include large areas of low-density housing.”

Front 40

What are four characteristics that describe what urban is?

Back 40

1) a well defined geographic area, that has some kind of agreed boundary,
2) a high density of people within that limited area,
3) buildings and dwellings tend to be closer together,
4) people living within such boundary tend to have definite set of activities (which are different from rural ones).

Front 41

The German -------- went even further and defined urban not on the basis of its characteristics or what its functions were; instead he noted that an urban area depends of a rural region for its primary supplies (food, raw materials). Such dependence, he noted, compelled the urban areas to control the rural ones. Thus, we end up with specific relations of control and exchange. Control is exercised by the non-agricultural urban centers.

Back 41

Werner Sombart

Front 42

The American sociologist Louis Wirth made a different contribution to early 20th century debate of what is “urban.” He stressed the “culture” found within such places. He called that culture – “urbanism.” According to him, urbanism was characterized by

Back 42

1) a break with kinship social relations (sociologists call such social relations primary),
2) social isolation and a reliance on individualism
3) an increased division of labor,
4) weaker social control
5) ill defined norms
6) reliance on a mass media for information and values,
7) secularization
8) superficial interactions
9) anonymity
10) social interaction based on instrumental values – one interacts to get something
11) functional specialization
12) competition among people

Front 43

The important point is that the “urban” culture is .......

Back 43

produced/created by the specific conditions in which the population lives. In other words, culture is not an independent variable.

Front 44

Nicholas Abercrombie, Stephen Hill, and Bryan S. Turner (1994) write that “In an article said to be the most widely cited in sociology, L. Wirth (1938) attempted to describe and explain a way of life peculiar to cities. For Wirth, cities have a whole range of features including the loss of primary relationships, weaker social control, a great division of labor, greater importance of the mass media and the tendency for urbanites to treat each other instrumentally. These features are caused by three basic factors – the numbers, density and heterogeneity of the population. In this theory Wirth was faithful to the principles of urban ecology in holding that fundamental features of the urban environment produce the entire range of urban social behavior. He has been criticized, firstly because empirical research showed that there was not one urban way of life but several, and, secondly, because it does not seem possible to derive all aspects of urban life from the three basic factors

Back 44

....

Front 45

Wirth’s thesis had its intellectual roots in the work of Georg Simmel, who in 1903 published an essay entitled "The Metropolis and Mental life". He claimed t.....

Back 45

hat the city (which he equated with urban) is a place where the inhabitants are constantly impacted by a mass of experiences, and one has to learn to cope in an effective manner. According to Simmel anonymity, calculation, and impersonality characterize people in the city, because it is essential to behave in that manner if one is to adjust. Cities, he maintained, produce strangers. Relationships in the city are no longer intimate or primary in nature

Front 46

Another European author, Ferdinand Toennies, also addressed the issue of what is “urban.” He developed a dichotomy of ....

Back 46

“ideal types” and contrasted “rural” and “urban.”

Front 47

Wirth and others, who have stressed the “urban culture” as a fundamental aspect when defining what is urban, have been criticized by those (like Phillip Hauser) who point out that ......

Back 47

Wirth confused the characteristics of the “urban” with the social consequences of capitalist industrialization in western Europe and the United States. In other words, Wirth simply projected the historical specificity of some countries into a general global “urban” process. (for a through critique of Wirth’s thesis see: R. Dewey "The rural urban continuum: Real but relatively unimportant", American Journal of Sociology, vol. 65, July 1960). Moreover, it has been shown that rural people can move to cities and preserve their primary social relations and cultural norms. [This contrary perspective has been called “urbanization without breakdown”].

Front 48

The following is what the U.S. Census Bureau defines as an urban area. This is the definition from the 2000 census (which had been changed consecutively, every ten years, since the concept was introduced in the year 1950. The US Census states, “For Census 2000, the Census Bureau classifies "urban" as all territory, population, and housing units located within an urbanized area (UA) or an urban cluster (UC). It delineates UA and UC boundaries to encompass densely settled territory, which consists of:

Back 48

core census block groups or blocks that have a population density of at least 1,000 people per square mile and
surrounding census blocks that have an overall density of at least 500 people per square mile

Front 49

In addition, under certain conditions, less densely settled territory may be part of each.....

Back 49

UA or UC.

Front 50

"Rural" consists of all territory, population, and housing units located outside of UAs and UCs. It contains both place and nonplace territory. Geographic entities, such as census tracts, counties, metropolitan areas, and the area outside metropolitan areas, often contain both urban and rural territory, population, and housing units.”

US bueraur def

Back 50

"Rural"

Front 51

From 1850-60 the urban growth rate was 7.4%, an unusually high figure. From 1860-70 it was 5.0%. 1900-1910 it averaged 14.2% and in the 1920s went as high as 18%. These were extraordinary figures, and they continued high. In fact, at the very height of the depression years, from 1930-1940 the urban growth rate was ---- for those 10 years and from 1960 to 1970 it averaged 6.5% per year.

Back 51

25%

Front 52

The sex ratio of the New Mexico population has changed in time. Until very recent the number of males outnumbered the female population. There are clear historical circumstances for that pattern. The Spanish conquest first, and the United States takeover of the region latter, brought more males than females to New Mexico. Historically (since 1598) , there has been a-------in New Mexico. For example: In the year 1860, in Santa Fe, there were 467 Hispanic males for every 100 Hispanic females. Ten years later the ratio was 305 to 100 females. We do not know, at the time what the ratio was of native American male to female.

Back 52

shortage of females

Front 53

As late as 1970 the ratio of male to female in Santa Fe was ----- And in 2000 the census disclosed a ratio of ----. This has been a major shift.

Back 53

146/100.

95.7 males to 100 females

Front 54

What do these numbers illustrate?

1870
105.0

1880
117.0

1890
117.7

1900
114.4

1910
115.3

1920
112.0

1930
107.4

1940
104.6

1950
104.2

1960
101.8

Back 54

Year
Males per 100 Females

Front 55

Then the pattern was reversed. Females began to out number males. By 1970 there were 97 males for every 100 females. In 1990 it dropped to 96.8 males to every 100 females. In 2000 there were 96.7 males per 100 females. Females made up ----- of the total population in 2000. The NM situation is somewhat akin to the national. The US Census Bureau has reported that in 2000 the " male-female ratio (the number who were male times 100 divided by the number who were
female) ... increased from 95.1 in 1990 to 96.3 in 2000."

Back 55

50.8%

Front 56

One reason for the increase is the increment in life expectancy of the population, but women tend to live longer than males. In other words, the mortality rate of females declined faster than that of males. [An interesting aside: more boys than girls are born in NM and the United States. Up to age 24 the males outnumber the females. But the situation changes after that age. From that point on more males die in each successive cohort group. In the year 2000, for the US as a whole, the ratio of males to females at age 85 was -----

Back 56

40.7 males for every 100 females.

Front 57

The main contribution to population growth has been migration into the---- . However, the death rate per 1000 inhabitants has declined until recently.

Back 57

state

Front 58

Historical and social conditions determine whether we live or die. As a rule people are not aware of the impact that social conditions have on whether we have a long life or a short one. It is assumed that we all have a "leveled field" and whether we live or die is a matter of luck or genetics. But that is not so. The death rate of different sectors of a population can tell us much about the society and its social inequalities. [See the revealing presentation of "The Inequalities Revealed by Death"]. In New Mexico, for example, cancer does not affect every ------

Back 58

ethnic group, racial group or income group equally

Front 59

What does this illustrate?

1850
18.7

1900
13.6

1920-24
12.3

1925-29
12.4

1930-34
11.5

1935-39
11.0

1940
10.8

1960
6.9

2000
7.96

2030
11.0-

Back 59

Yet, as a state pattern the crude death rate of the entire population has declined, until recently. The death rate is the number of deaths per 1,000 living members of a population.

Front 60

What do these numbers illustrate?

1950
163.0
55.1

1960
42.3
33.2

1970
27.3
21.0

1980
11.2
11.0

1990


1999
18.4
6.8

Back 60

Maternal and Infant Death Rates per 100,000 live births have improved in a very dramatic manner.

Front 61

We do not have accurate figures on the age distribution of the New Mexico population in the 19th century. The 1860, however, reported that children under the age of 5 represented 19.5% of the total population. In fact-----of the population was under the age of 30. In other words, until very recent the majority of the population of the state was very young since people did not live to an old age. A decline in the percentage of children under the age of 5 indicates that the people over the age of 5 continue to increase (live longer).

Back 61

76.5%

Front 62

What do these numbers illustrate?
1950
13.9%

1960
14.3%

1970
9.5%

1980
8.4%

1990
8.8%

2000
7.2%

Back 62

Population Under the Age of 5

Front 63

The elderly population in New Mexico has been increasing. We have no figures on what percent of the total population of New Mexico was more than 65 years old in the 19th century. The only data available reveals that ----- of the population in 1860 was over 30 years old. We can assume that almost no one got to be that old.

Back 63

23.5%

Front 64

Science and technology has transformed the elderly in modern capitalist society. People began to live longer since the 20th century. This was the result of improved nutrition, better sanitation and more health care. The average life expectancy in 1900, for example, was 43 years old in New Mexico. By 2000 life expectancy was ---years and 3 months. For males it reached 74 years and 4 months and for women 80 years and one month.

Back 64

77 years

Front 65

What do these numbers illustrate?

1950
4.9

1960
5.4

1970
6.9

1980
9.0

1990
10.8

2000
11.8

2025
16.9

Back 65

% of eldely over 65

Front 66

An increase in the life expectancy of the population has significant sociological consequences:

Back 66

a) children will not provide care for the elderly, at least not directly - special institutions will be created. Thus, the emergence of nursing homes - an institutional innovation of industrial society. It segregates the old from the rest of the population.
b) rapid technological change makes the elderly obsolete as far as technical knowledge. The old are culturally devalued.

Front 67

What do these numbers illustrate?
1900
22.9 years

1930
26.5

1950
30.2

1970
28.1

1980
30.0

1990
32.9

2000
34.6

Back 67

the medium age in NM

Front 68

The November 1960 issue of the American Journal of Sociology had an essay by M. F. Nimkoff and Russell Middleton, ---

Back 68

"Types of Family and Types of Economy" which is pertinent to this course. The authors analyzed 549 cultures and discovered a "rough relationship between type of family system and certain economic factors -- especially the subsistence pattern and the amount of family property."

Front 69

The basic thesis of their essay suggested that the -------tends to predominate in hunting and gathering societies, while the extended family is found where there is a more ample and secure agricultural/food supply.

Back 69

"independent"/nuclear family

Front 70

The "independent"/nuclear family refers to a family group that do not normally include more than one nuclear or polygamous family. A family is ------if the head of a family of procreation is neither subject to the authority of any of his relatives nor economically dependent on them.

Back 70

independent

Front 71

he independent/nuclear family is most common in hunting and gathering societies; those societies where ------ is dominant and other subsistence patterns are absent or not very important.

Back 71

hunting and gathering

Front 72

The extended family refers to a family group that includes more than two generations, and the members of the group are subject to the authority of the head of the family or other relatives, and there is a high degree of ---------

Back 72

economic dependence.

Front 73

The -------- is common in societies where agriculture and animal husbandry are the main economic activities of the society.

Back 73

extended family

Front 74

Ralph Linton in the book The Study of Man (1936) has shown that the extended family has some basic advantages in an agricultural society:

Back 74

- capitalizes the asexual associations of siblings

- capitalizes the sexual attraction between adults

- the efficiency of the household is not impaired by the removal of both son and daughter at marriage as it is in the individual family system.

- in the extended family, the wife joins the family of the husband, so there is accumulated experience, accumulated resources, pre-established social relations

- the family organizes economic cooperation

- the family provides a high degree of security in times of deprivation or crisis (death or separation is not as traumatic as in the case of the nuclear/conjugal family.

Front 75

The extended family began to confront major problems during the territorial period. The traditional family concepts came into conflict with a modernizing economy and culture. Capitalist practice and culture preached the desirability of economic independence, a greater degree of personal autonomy, and greater privacy. The message ......

Back 75

was particularly appealing to the young.

Front 76

Hunting does not encourage large families. There are several reasons for this:

Back 76

- mobility

- insecure food supply

- when game and wild plants are limited and dispersed, the members of a hunting or gathering society will generally scatter to achieve optimal output

- subsistence patterns generate low population density and family fragmentation

- "Participation of many persons in seed- and root-gathering generally not only fails to increase per capita output but decreases it."

- hunters consume the food as soon as it is obtained. So there is little accumulation for future use

- "In societies which lack techniques for preserving and storing food a greater emphasis is placed on self-reliance and training in achievement than in societies with a high accumulation of food resources. The resulting personality type might thus be more congenial to the independent family system."

- IN hunting and gathering societies, "private property" refers primarily to social status and symbols rather than things and resources. Private property is applied to certain privileges (names, songs, dances, symbols, rituals)

- In hunting and gathering societies material/private property may exist but it is limited to what one can carry. (This changed somewhat, when the Spanish brought the horse, the mule, the donkey and cattle. The fact that the animals could move, meant that the hunters and gatherers redefined the concept of private property; it was enlarged as it had not been the case before).

- Once hunters moved into a "herding" or "pastoral" situation, then they began to have larger families; and they began to acquire an extended type of family system.

- For the hunter or the herder, the land is there; it provides game or pasture; but it is not owned.

Front 77

In agricultural societies, the extended family tends to predominate.


why?

Back 77

-- when the family does not move around, then land acquires a special meaning. It is to be owned or possessed.

-- land control or ownership becomes identified with prestige, and power as well as wealth

-- family becomes attached to the land; and there develops a strong identification of the land and the family

-- dividing the land has the connotation of dividing the family; and this is not supposed to occur.

-- one holds the family land intact, as a way of keeping the family together

Front 78

The modern capitalist family:

Back 78

a) relatively small proportion of the labor force involved in agriculture

b) greater stress on independence and individualism

c) little demand for family labor from the capitalist economy

d) employment is provided by non family institutions on the basis of individual skills, and not on family membership

e) labor is paid to an individual (in the extended family pattern in agricultural societies, labor is unpaid)

Front 79

What is a family?

Back 79

There is no generalized agreement in the social sciences as to what constitutes a family. This is not unusual for two reasons. First, there are many types of family systems throughout the world. Second, the nature of the family has changed throughout history. Thus, we tend to work with a definition that might be universal in its descriptive aspects, but in doing so the definition becomes too general in scope, losing concreteness and specificity to be applicable in each and every place.

The family is an institution in which a social group of two or more persons are related by blood ties, marriage, adoption and/or any other ritual of incorporation. This social group is made up of persons who live together or near-by for a relatively extended period of time, sharing social responsibilities, and resources. Included in this definition will be extended and nuclear families, as well as consensual unions (unmarried couples), and divorced parents living with their children.

George P. Murdock, an anthropologist who surveyed more than 250 societies and cultures, maintains that the family is a social group that happens to have a common residence, enjoys some degree of economic cooperation, some of its members have reproductive functions, the group includes adults of both sexes - two of which maintain socially approved sexual relations, and have children who have been adopted or biological reproduced.

Front 80

Describe the family's histroy in New Mexcio

Back 80

he institution of the family has shown remarkable diversity in New Mexico. This has been the case as a result of different socio-cultural backgrounds and economic survival strategies among Native American peoples, dramatic changes produced by colonial conquest (first by Spain and later by the United States) and by capitalist modernization.

There are different types of families depending on size, internal structure, functions, permanence and relations with the overall dominant society.

There is a close tie between the nature of the society and its family system.. Whenever the society changes, one can expect changes in some or all aspects of the family system.

M. F. Nimkoff and Russell Middleton after studying 549 cultures discovered that there was a "rough relationship between type of family system and certain economic factors - especially the subsistence patterns and the amount of family property." (See: Lecture 15 from Types of Family and Types of Economy," American Journal of Sociology, November 1960).

The type of family systems we find in a society is the result of the interaction of socio-cultural traditions, economic survival strategies and specific historical processes. In a society in which the population engages in a nomadic way of life the family system will be radically different from a sedentary horticultural society. Moreover, a society that produces goods for its own use will have a type of family that fits that survival strategy. On the other hand, a society that engages in barter but does not produce for sale or profit will have different family patterns. A capitalist economic system, consequently, will foster family systems that will be consonant with such economic activities.

Front 81

Explain the Apache family way of life

Back 81

The nomadic way of life had an impact on the type of family system the Apaches developed.

Hunting and gathering compels people to live in a particular way. Usually there is a period when there might be plenty of resources around, and other times when there is scarcity. Obviously the seasons will affect whether there is a cycle of plenty or of scarcity. It is necessary, consequently, to try to accumulate for those times when there is scarcity. Or, the livelihood of the population might be reduced during the scarcity seasons. One may need to move, collect and hunt in order to consume and in order to save. But nomadic groups cannot carry everything they save unless they leave what is accumulated in a secure place. Storage, of course, is sedentary. In periods of scarcity, if resources had been stored, then the nomadic group could become sedentary.

Hunting and gathering does not allow large families, or extended one. This is so because the entire family will have to be on the move. This raises the problem of the mobility of older people as well as children. Thus, the only way that large families could exist within a hunting and gathering group would be if there is a division of labor and some people ended up hunting (i.e. moving) and others gathered (but not too far from camp). But if there is little obtained from hunting and gathering, then the number of people who could be sustained will be limited. In other words, the old and children are a problem because there is little social surplus.

When game and wild plants are in limited supply and dispersed over a large area (particularly in arid regions), the hunters and gatherers have to spread around and become dispersed; they will have to scatter in order to attain sustenance. This very process of geographic dispersal can contribute to the fragmentation of the family or the reliance on small households.

M.N. Nimkoff and Russell Middleton write that, "In societies which lack techniques for preserving and storing food a greater emphasis is placed on self-reliance and training in achievement than in societies with a high accumulation of food resources." ("Types of Family and Types of Economy," American Journal of Sociology, November 1960).

As long as hunters and gatherers are nomadic and unable to store goods, then the amount of material things that can be owned is limited. In that case the real problem is the carrying capacity of the group. In such a circumstance material private property is very limited. Social status and social prestige will not be identified with material wealth. Social status and prestige will be identified with symbols, names, songs, dances, rituals and icons. Alain Testart writes,

"generally speaking hunter-gatherers travel on foot and carry their loads themselves. Thus, wealth is generally limited t light, easily transportable possessions. Apart from the implements, weapons and tools required for subsistence activities, possessions are mainly confined to clothes or bodily ornaments, belts, headbands, necklaces, armbands, pendants and so forth. Other items regarded as precious pertain to tools even if they have no functional value, such as carefully chipped spearheads or painstakingly polished axes." ("The Significance of Food Storage Among Hunter-Gatherers: Residence Patterns, Population Densities, and Social Inequalities," Current Anthropology, October 1982).

Numerous authors have noted that the nomadic way does not lend itself to the accumulation of much wealth.

In hunting and gathering communities women had twofold roles: to gatherer food and other materials, and to reproduce. They give birth to children and they also have to take care of them. In other words, the mothers will have to breast feed AND CARRY the infant. She will have to do so until the child is about four years old. Alain Testart has noted that,

"The work load of a woman with more than one infant would be so heavy as to interfere with food-getting activities requiring a high degree of mobility." ("The Significance of Food Storage Among Hunter-Gatherers: Residence Patterns, Population Densities, and Social Inequalities," Current Anthropology, October 1982).

Hunters and gatherers have numerous mechanisms to reduce the number of children born to a woman. First, there is birth spacing - often up to five years between one child and the other. There is also abortion, and contraception. There is also a series of rituals and taboos to reduce sexual intercourse. Prolonged lactation was practiced to reduce ovulation. Infanticide may have been a practice in some circumstances too. The nomadic mode of production required few children.

The Spanish conquest drastically changed the nomadic way of life. The Spanish introduced agriculture as a new mode of production, domesticated plants and animals (the horse, the mule, cattle, etc). All these items increased the food supply available to the nomads and the horticultural communities.

The horse was incorporated by the hunters and gatherers into their social organization and consequently increased their own carrying capacity. The horse and the mule improved the speed and the range of the nomadic group. That meant that the social surplus could be increased and that had implications for the old and the young. Families could become larger.

During the Spanish colonial period some of the hunters and gatherers became herders and pastoralists. The domestication of animals meant that the nomads continued to be so, but were accompanied by their animals. Herding and pastoralism will increase output and permitted the increase in the number of family members.

The nomadic band was made up of several families, but they were small. The nomadic family had numerous links and networks with other families, constituting clans. Clans were traced descent through the mother. So the Apaches were matrilineal. Clans, in other words, were associations of families connected to one another through blood or marriage (through the females).
To belong to a clan implied specific behavior, specific roles and responsibilities. Apache clans had many obligations. Apache clan members were expected to do certain things because they were in a clan. Greenville Goodwin writes,

"The true power of clans lay in their far-flung network of obligations - obligations necessary because of a supposed kinship among all members of the same clan. It is important to note that clan obligations extended not only between members of the same group but to members of all groups [belonging to a clan]… Each person belongs to or is of his mother's clan." (The Social Organization of the Western Apache, University of Arizona Press, 1969).

Clan members were expected to share. This is a value that originates with the nomadic mode of production. Non storing hunters and gatherers were compelled – by necessity - to share. It has been noted that

"the food brought back to the camp by the hunter is totally or partially shared out, thus bringing prestige to the successful hunter." ("The Significance of Food Storage Among Hunter-Gatherers: Residence Patterns, Population Densities, and Social Inequalities," Current Anthropology, October 1982).

Front 82

Why should the Apache family share?

Back 82

Because it cannot be stored it cannot be kept; consequently the best policy is to distribute the surplus among everyone. Sharing is a rational decision since nothing else can be done, except t allow it to spoil. It has been noted that,

"Food sharing among non-storing hunter-gatherers is linked with the material basis of the society. First, the hunter who has shot more game than he needs can only give what he cannot eat to others for fear of wasting it…. Second, as a result of enforcement of the rule of sharing, the empty-handed hunter can hope for a share from the more fortunate one. Food sharing functions, therefore, as a kind of social insurance against back luck. ("The Significance of Food Storage Among Hunter-Gatherers: Residence Patterns, Population Densities, and Social Inequalities," Current Anthropology, October 1982).

Sharing, moreover, became a positive cultural value. Apaches were expected to share success, supplies, stories, and experiences. Moreover, the influence of clan and kinship also played a part in fostering the culture of sharing. Sharing implied the sharing of space. For the Apaches being with others had a positive value, while living alone does not. Nomadism, in a sense, fostered a sociable and gregarious outlook. For the Apaches the clan, the kinship and the family were fundamental aspects of their lives and their community.

Frank C, Lockwood wrote,

"Each family was bound together by rights and duties that were formal and well defined. Families camped together. The home of the mother was the family center. She was the head. If there were married daughters, their husbands came to dwell in the maternal camp." (The Apache Indians, MacMillan Company, 1938).

The Apaches had matrilocal and matrilineal societies. The bond between the mother and the daughters was stronger than between the mother and the sons. The mother-son relationship was temporary since the male had to move with his wife's family. It has been note by Frank Lockwood that,

"once married, a man said good-by forever to his own family. They no longer had any claim upon him. His whole obligation after that was to the family of his mother in law, As long as he lived he must support and protect the domestic circle into which he had married." (The Apache Indians, MacMillan Company, 1938).

The Apaches practiced clan exogamy. In other words, males were married into the clan of his future wife. Sisters had stronger bonds than brothers did. (Ruth McDonald Boyer, Apache Mothers and Daughters).

Front 83

Explain the Hispanic way of life

Back 83

In New Mexico the Hispanic family established with the Spanish conquest was essentially rural, dependent on agriculture, cattle ranching and sheep-herding. The Hispanic family was strongly connected to the land. The sedentary nature of the rural family strengthened the connection and the identity with the land. Control over land resources (in the form of possession) was transformed into social prestige and economic power.

Over generations the strong tied between land and family developed into numerous cultural values, To divide the land into smaller pieces was interpreted as dividing the family; something that was not acceptable. One holds on to land, because one is also holding to the unity of the family.

In the extended, agrarian, peasant, Hispanic family social interaction took place within the household and the extended kin. The extended patriarchal family had numerous functions including economic cooperation and production, consumption and recreation as well as social control. The agrarian family did not foster individualism; the extended family fought it.

The Hispanic family taught its members that poverty was a virtue, and hard work was desirable. Children had to work, like everyone else. Social control was exercised by the family (other directedness). People learned from an early age that rewards depended on the acceptance of others.

Front 84

ome of the values and practices of the rural Hispanic family has survived until the 1980s. In 1981 a study of the village of Cañones, New Mexico, found that the following remained important features of the family:
...

Back 84

a) family members share work responsibilities (at least during weekends), although they do not share money;

b) family members, if they do not live nearby, do get together during weekends and engage in the sharing of food;

c) "In Cañones, a wife owes her husband absolute fidelity, but he owes her (and his family and the community) something as well: discretion;"d) "a grown man as father is the authority of the house." (Paul Kutsche and John R. VanNess, Cañones - Values, Crisis, and Survival in a Northern New Mexico Village, 1981).

Front 85

n northern New Mexico today the extended family no longer provides economic security; with the loss of land and labor, and without important modern skills, a shortage of capital and limited educational resources, the population often migrated out of those tradition bound areas. As the northern Hispanic villages lost population, the new migrants took with them the ideal and value that kinship remains culturally important to .....

Back 85

Hispanics and Native Americans.

Front 86

Explain the American impact on NM

Back 86

The United States takeover of New Mexico initiated a new stage in the development of the family. Indeed, one could speak of a revolution in the function, structure and character of the family. Modern capitalism fostered the development of a different type of family system. There was a shift away from an ideology that stressed that poverty was virtue, instead the new capitalist ideology welcomed the accumulation of capital as a positive good. The market penetrated every faced of family life.

Children were separated from production, that is, they no longer were expected to work. But they became, like everyone, consumers. The society stressed the importance of individualism rather than community or kin. The United States introduced into New Mexico a new type of family, one that heightened individualism and the pursuit of self-interest. This was a fairly long process, initiated soon after the 1850s.

As modern society has advanced the traditional functions performed by the family has been reduced. This is particularly so in New Mexico during the 20th century.

The extended family has numerous functions, including: economic cooperation, recreation, social control, socialization of children. In the modern family, prevalent in the capitalist mode of production, many of the functions performed by the traditional f

Front 87

Name four ways that NM changed

Back 87

The modernization of transportation, for example, brought trains, cars, busses, trucks and airplanes to the area. Each of these drastically transformed population growth, economic patterns and production, social and geographic mobility.
· Gas service and electricity penetrated the home and produced new patterns of family behavior, the possibility of staying up, with light, was created.
· The radio, the telephone, the television, the refrigerator, the gas and electric stove put an end to the traditional ways of household technology and the previous ways of doing things.
· In-house bath facilities, running water, air conditioning, heating allowed the manufacturing of home environment never imagined before the 19th century.

Front 88

Explain how technial changes and modes changed life

Back 88

Technical changes affected the way the family operated and family members could do things never envisioned before.

The capitalist mode of production with its operating principle of competition and self-interest changed the culture of New Mexico. The capitalist norms became dominant in the society and economy and also entered the intimate realm of the family. The family which had been the lost remnant of traditional social relations and pre-capitalist modes of thought and feeling (with the stress on duty, deference and respect for your elders) now confronted the ever growing influence of the capitalist mode of production.

The present modern family was organized around the principle of individual happiness, requiring that the family do not guide nor judge but merely support its members, validate them and offer emotional support without strings attached.

The functions performed by the traditional family could no longer be performed and the new emerging modern family will have different structure, size and functions. Its values and roles changed as well. Capitalist economic modernity reduced the importance of traditional familial functions such as labor organization. Other institutions would perform those functions.
.
The extended family was progressively replaced by the nuclear family. The rural family was supplanted by the urban one.

Front 89

what is a nuclear family?

Back 89

refers to the situation where one or two generations live within the same household or nearby. The nuclear family is a self-sufficient, independent, and isolated social unit. In this type of family the husband and wife depend on each other. It functions almost exclusively for emotional and economic protection. The nuclear family is tied together by the central value of love, an emotional tie rather than a material one.
In the nuclear family childcare is performed by one or both members of the family, or someone is paid to do so. Older persons, basically grandparents, are not taken care of by the nuclear family. And children, as they become adults, leave the home in which they were born.

Front 90

what are conjugal families

Back 90

refers to the situation where two adults, acting as companions and spouses, have gone through a marriage ritual.

Front 91

what is an extended family

Back 91

refers to the situation where more than three generations live within the same household or nearby.
The extended family tends to be self-sufficient but not as isolated as the nuclear family from other kin members. The functions performed by this type of family are numerous since the society at large does not yet have specialized social institutions to compete with the family. Grandparents live with the family, and children are taken care by biological and non-biological parents.

Front 92

what are the two dominant types of families in NM

Back 92

In New Mexico there have been two dominant types of families: the extended and the nuclear family.

Front 93

In what ways has the extended family been defined?

Back 93

The extended family has been identified with hunting and gathering, horticultural or agrarian peasant economies among the native American and Hispanic communities. It should be noted that ethnographers have found evidence of nuclear as as well extended families among the Navajos. The nuclear families until recently followed what Gary Witherspoon called a "subsistence residential unit," that is, nuclear families live in adjacent dwellings but often combine their herds of sheep into one large herd.

Front 94

In what ways has the nuclear family been defined?

Back 94

The nuclear family, on the other hand, has predominated in urban areas, particularly since the territorial period. In the extended family most social interaction takes place within the family. This is not so in the nuclear family.

Front 95

what type of family is disppeearing?

Back 95

The extended agrarian family is disappearing, replaced by the modern nuclear or the one adult-headed family. This can be discerned on the basis of the higher divorce rate, the increasing number of desertions and the higher incidence of children moving out of the home. These changes all respond to the widespread modernization of New Mexican society and culture. The process, however, is slow.

Front 96

where do families no long provide secuity

Back 96

In northern New Mexico and in the Native American reservations the extended family no longer provides economic security. With the loss of land, water and labor; and without the necessary modern skills, the education or the capital; the population had to depend to a greater extent on state assistance in order to survive. In the modern family, identity resides with the individual. In pre-modern societies, personal identity was shaped by the family and kin-related social organizations.

Front 97

what is endogamy?

Back 97

refers to the situation where the persons who marry have the some social background (ethnic, class, language, etc.)

Front 98

what is exogamy?

Back 98

refers to the situation where the persons who marry do not share similar social background.

Front 99

what is monogamy?

Back 99

the situation where the persons who married one another have an exclusive relationship (primarily sexual in nature).

Front 100

what is serial monagmy

Back 100

serial monogamy: the situation where the persons who have married, divorced and recreated a monogamous relationship

Front 101

what is polgamy?

Back 101

a marriage pattern in which more than two persons are united by a social and sexual bond. This situation is found in some pre-modern societies.

Front 102

what are teh two types of polgamy?

Back 102

polygyny

polyandry

Front 103

what is polygyny

Back 103

polygyny: the situation where one man has married more than one woman. The Navajos often practiced polygyny. a situation where a man married two sisters; or a man married a woman and if she already had a daughter, once she become an adult, he would marry her as well. This type of social practice often could be found in situations where there were more females to males in the population. It is also a way of reducing the number of people within the group, while forcing males to go outside their own community to got a spouse. The practice is found among hunters and gatherers.

Front 104

what is polyandry

Back 104

the situation where one woman has married more than one man (although not common)
As a rule, persons tend to marry those who have the some characteristics (known as the principle of homogamy). This is a pattern of mate selection in which people tend to find as mates those who have similar characteristic (age, close, "race," ethnicity, religion, language, geographic location)

Front 105

what is neolocality

Back 105

the situation where a family establishes residence away from the parents of each of the spouses. Example: this Is the typical dominant pattern in New Mexico. The pattern becomes predominant after the United States seized the territory.

Front 106

what is patrilocality

Back 106

the situation where a family establishes residence with or near the male spouse's family. Example: northern Hispanic villages in New Mexico. This pattern was very strong before 1848 and it remains a practice in self-sufficient agricultural areas.

Front 107

what is matrilocality

Back 107

the situation where a family establishes residence with or near the female spouse's family. Example: the Pueblo community in New Mexico. The Pueblos have practiced this type of pattern. The Hopi have matrilocal families.

Front 108

When -------families take with them the mental universe they had learned elsewhere. The barrio becomes their new identity and root, the new place that one does not leave behind. Even in an urban, modern and capitalist milieu; kinship remains culturally important to Hispanos and Native Americans.

Back 108

migration eventually happens, the Hispano and the native American

Front 109

what are the three patterns of descent?

Back 109

bilateral

patrilinal

matrilineal

Front 110

what is bilateral

Back 110

the situation and practice by which descent is traceable through both parents' families. Example: the prevailing pattern found in New Mexico today.

Front 111

what is patrilineal

Back 111

the situation and practice by which descent is traceable only through the father's family. Example: this pattern is found in pastoral, horticultural and agricultural Hispanic communities in New Mexico before 1848.

Front 112

what is matrilineal

Back 112

the situation and practice by which descent is traceable only thorough the mother's family. This pattern is found in Pueblo communities as well as in nomadic hunting and gathering Apaches and Navahos. In these communities the women played a significant role in transferring inheritance and control of property. Once the Spanish introduced sheep into the region, Navaho women became the "owners" of the sheep that the Navaho had. Women, by having a monopoly over the control of the sheep were able to assert their power on the distribution of meat, wool and during the territorial period - money from the sale of wool. [This particular activity, the control of animals and meat, had been the monopoly of Navaho men before the Spanish conquest; thus, the introduction of domesticated animals undermined male power outside the home].

Front 113

In a --------- descent is traced through the females, and the females are at the core of social relations. Females who are related by blood, marriage, or ritual live near one another, and support one another. One could trace a clan line through a common female ancestor. In matrilineal Navaho tradition one does not marry a member of the same clan, to do so it is considered a form of incest.

Back 113

matrilineal society

Front 114

In this type of society gender relations did not cross, that is, male sons dealt with male father while female daughter interact with female mother. Whenever the biological father is not present, the brother of the wife serves in the role of social father (the uncle becomes "father"). The mother-child bond is stronger than the father-child tie. This is not surprising since ancestry and basic social relations are determined by clan membership -----

Back 114

through the mother.

Front 115

what are the three patterns of authoriyt

Back 115

patriarchal
matriarcal
dual power

Front 116

explain the patriarchal authority

Back 116

the situation in which the oldest male within the family concentrates power and authority.

Front 117

explain the matriarchal authority

Back 117

the situation in which the oldest female within the family concentrates power and authority.

Front 118

explain the dual power authority

Back 118

the situation in which both male and female parents share the same degree of power and authority.

Front 119

what is the importance of the family?

Back 119

Although the family plays an extraordinarily important and powerful role in any society, it is even more important in pre-capitalist traditional societies. This is the case because the family is the institution through which most basic social functions are carried out.

The family performs numerous and at times contradictory functions. It represents nurturing and discipline; it is supposed to provide support and love, it providess control and punishments. The family moves between the polarities of love and power; understanding and authoritarian practices.
The following are the basic functions performed by most family structures [through time]

Front 120

explain the sexual regulation activity of the importance of the family

Back 120

the family contributes to the establishment of guidelines (norms) as to how to express sexual drives. limiting when necessary those drives. The family, consequently, provides rules on such things as: incest, who one can marry, sexuality and siblings, rules on the number of sexual partners and guidelines on exogamy.

For many years sexual activity was permitted only within the bounds of marriage (at least for the women). This has changed for numerous reasons. However, sexual activity was expected to produce children. This meant that the expression of sexual drives was equated with the responsibility of biologically reproducing the family, and indirectly. society. Biological parenthood was projected as a social responsibility (often times implicit was the degree to which someone was sufficiently "male" or "female").

Biological parenthood, moreover, was equated with social parenthood. That is, the biological parents were assumed would be the social parents as well. This is no longer the case.
The family has the basic and approved function of biologically producing new members for the society.

Front 121

Explain the socialization importance of the family

Back 121

The family is the main instrument in the socialization of children. Socialization refers to the process by which people are taught to internalize the values, norms, practices and symbols of the dominant society or community of which the family is a part.

Socialization reproduces the patterns of social and cultural behavior in the new person. It is the intent of socialization to pass on guidelines of ethical behavior, and to instruct on the proper behavior and social rules.

Once these norms and values are adopted and internalized, once a person makes them his/her own, one's personal character has been shaped. Socialization teaches the young what to think, how to think about it, and what to do accordingly.

The family has the central function of socially reproducing new members of the society. The family is one of the key mechanisms to socialize new generations into the prevailing values and norms of the society in which the parents live. The family by shaping the young creates the personality structure that will be consonant with that society.

Christopher Lasch has noted that the family transfers culture in personality. The family, in other words, teaches the child so that he or she will want to do what he or she is expected to do. It is through the power of socialization that society, through the family, “transforms necessity into a virtue."

In pre-capitalist society the personality structure of the young stresses the collective rather than the individual, self-sacrifice rather than personal enjoyment, and family comes first.
In modern capitalist society the stress will be on self-reliance, competition rather than collaboration, individual self-restraint rather than community supervision.

It is through the family that the larger society influences the behavior of future members. By socializing children, the young learns group norms, status positions and a symbolic universe. The family, shaped by the larger society, in turn, influences the new generations. The family socializes children into the values, traditions, ranks and statuses of the society.

The role of the elders: the "viejos" [the old ones] provide role models, they used to be the story tellers who also guided children, the adolescents and the adults. The elders are the normative backbone of traditional societies. Children are expected to learn, adopt and accept the old ways and values and the roles stemming from them.

As New Mexican society has modernized the old norms and values no longer hold true. They do not fit the new situations, the long held norms break down on the face of new unexpected circumstances; and the breakdown of the power of the elders follows.

Front 122

explain the social placement importance of the family

Back 122

through the family one inherits a social, language, a national and an ethnic identity. One also inherits a class position.

Front 123

Explain the material support of the family and importance

Back 123

The family sustains its members with food, clothing and shelter. In pre-modern societies these needs were met by the family itself through self-sufficiency. But once the family lost direct control the means of production, once the basic material resources were lost, it became imperative to connect to a market in order to obtain food, clothes or a dwelling. Once the traditional families were separated from land and water, poverty followed. In traditional societies there were low
standards of living, but there was no poverty in the sense of lacking the resources to meet one's family's basic needs at a culturally acceptable level.

Front 124

explain the emotional support of the importance of the family

Back 124

The family helps provide a sense of self, an individual identity. The extended family provided a sense of belonging, certainty and security. Moreover, among Native American and Hispanic communities other adults could substitute for a parent whenever necessary - to provide guidance, comfort, to work, etc.

Front 125

explain familism as an improtant aspect of new mexico

Back 125

In New Mexico familism has been a very important family ideology. Familism can be defined as follows: "All purposes, all conduct, all gains, all standards and ideals are evaluated by comparison with the fortunes of familistic groupings. Whatever conduces to the welfare of the members of the familist groups, to the performance of their special functions, maintenance or worship - is good. Everything else is bad."

Familism is a form of social organization and ideology in which all values and actions are determined by reference to the maintenance, continuity, and functions of family interest.

Familism is prevalent among pre-capitalist societies. Hispanic New Mexican villages as well as Native American communities have a long history of familism [which used to be the case in the east as well]. These values are related to the very nature of the socio-economic system in which these families lived: they had to reduce individual deviation in order to secure community survival. The fate of the community was defined through kinship networks. The individual was expected to sacrifice for kin; one had to subordinate for the larger good. In the agrarian extended family there is little room for individualism and independence, instead most social roles tend to be ascribed. This contrasts with the modern, urban, nuclear family where there is less family control, a greater degree of autonomy and independence and social roles often are achieved or negotiated.

Front 126

explain the courtship phase of a family

Back 126

Every society has a form of courtship that precedes marriage. Among the Navajos, for example, the immediate family of a young female was involved in determining who the husband could be. The consent of the parents, and their support, were required for a courtship to take place.

In colonial times the Hispanic family practiced sexual segregation. Unmarried females were kept separate from the available males (unless they were part of the immediate family). Courtship was highly ritualized among the Spanish speaking families in colonial times. The courtship period was called the "prendorio" )or attachment). The groom's father (or godfather) requested of the father's bride-to-be, her hand. Usually this was done in writing. The written note, as a rule, was done by a priest. The reply would take a number of days. If the hand was "granted," then the "prendorio" would take place. )it should be noted that if the request was turned down, then the female's family would put some gourds by the front door of their house. Turning someone down was called "dar calabazas" (literally: to give gourds or pumpkins). If the request was accepted then both families got together. The male's familt will request, "deseamos conocer la prenda que pretendemos" (we want to see the jewel that we seek). The female then was formally presented. The couple then will kneel down before the woman's godfather, they will be blessed, and they had become "prendados" or attached. Presents will be exchanged.

The concept of the female as a "prenda" (or jewel) was connected to the cult of virginity. Women had to be virgins before marriage. Virginity had implications for the honor of the family and its social position within Hispanic society. There were many different ways by which the value of virginity was passed on from one generation to the next. The culture stressed virginity as an expression of purity and of religious commitment. To lose one's virginity before marriage was a social shame as well as serious sin. One of the ways to socialize young people into the cult of virginity can be seen in the "Llorona" stories. La Llorona (or Wailing Woman) is found in the folklore of the Hispanic rural communities and the Native Americans. (It is possible that the native Americans borrowed the story from the Hispanic settlements).

La Llorona is remorseful mother. She is a young unmarried woman who had a child without having married. She was ashamed that she lost her "virtue." Her family and community rejected her. Herr lover did not marry her because he did not "respect her." So, when her baby was born she puts the baby in a sack and throws the child into a river or acequia. The baby died. Then she feels remorse and although she died by drowning as well; her soul keeps on crying. La Llorona lures children and men to the river to kill them, the story goes. Obviously this is a story with a moral teaching: do not have children out of wedlock.

Of course, as we become more modern - who hears the Llorona anymore?

Front 127

Explain pre-arranged marriages

Back 127

The "attachment" was a Hispanic mechanism to arrange marriages. The anthropologist Marvin Harris notes that,

"In extended families, marriage must be seen primarily in the context of group interests. Individuals serve the interests of the extended family. The larger domestic group never loses its interest in nor totally surrender its right to the productive, the reproductive, and the sexual functions of each married pair's spouses and children. Marriage under these circumstances is aptly described as a 'contract' or as an 'alliance' between groups.
This contract varies in content but it influences present and future matings involving other members of both groups."

When a family arranged a marriage, the family asserted its collective importance and power over individual choice. If you were born into a Hispanic family your duty toward your family took precedence over your personal sentiment. If your father told you what to do, then parental and paternal love was more important than romantic love. This was a widespread pattern in societies throughout the world.

The ideology of familism triumphed over personal autonomy or individual freedom. Such behavior was not necessarily traumatic, although people in modern society might think it was. People were socialized from early childhood to accept the decisions of your family and of your elders.

In any arranged marriage among the Hispanic villages the woman was expected to be a virgin; if she was not, then the honor of the entire family was jeopardized. Hence, personal virtue was a fundamental element of family status.

Arranged marriages usually took place among equals, although people wanted to marry above their own social position. Ramon Gutierrez writes that,

"New Mexico's Spanish colonists believed that there should be igualdad de calidad (equality in social status) between marriage partners. Parents actively objected to matrimonial bonds when disparity, whatever its basis, was too great."

Arranged marriages had the function of consolidating the power and authority of families; personal love, on the other hand, threatened family and kin solidarity. It appears that the lower the social position of people within the Hispanic settlements, the less incidence of arranged marriages. By the early 18th century, consensual unions were formed that broke away from arranged marriages; it appears that most of these unions were among genizaros (detribalized native Americans that had adopted some of way of the Hispanics, or had move to their communities).

In 1766 the Spanish colonial authorities issue some laws establishing that it was mandatory t obtain the consent of one's parents before one could marry. The fact that the Spanish colonial regime was making such laws indicates that the customary practices had weakened.

The story of Romeo and Juliet, portrayed by William Shakespeare, is also the story of the revolt against arranged marriages. In the agrarian communities of northern New Mexico families often decided for their children who they could marry and consequently there were ever more frequent challenges to the authority of the family as the region became more economically modern. Indeed, modern individual choice with its stress on romantic love marks the decline of extended familial arrangements. Individualism and modernism often develop hand in hand.

Front 128

explain the dowry

Back 128

Usually courtship implied some form of agreed dowry. A dowry is a formal exchange of wealth that takes place between two different families; usually the exchange takes place in only one direction - so it could be considered a sort of a gift.

Front 129

what are the two different types that the dowry can have?

Back 129

1) a transfer of wealth from the bride's family to the groom's family. The bride's father pays for the daughter because she is is taken away from her family and another family is supposed to take care of her. Her new family is expeted to provide. In patrilocal, patriarchal and patrilineal societies having a daughet meant losing her when she married (she moved to her husband's family residence and her family also had to transfer some wealth. Among the Navajos, for example, the gift usually consisted of sheep or horses
2) the groom's family provided a transfer of wealth to the future wife's family (often called "bride price.") This is the exception but it takes place when there is a shortage of women.

Front 130

explain marriage of the family stages?

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Societies have numerous and different rituals to ormalize what is considered a marriage. During the Spanish colonial period the Spanish speaking communities had the marriage ritual of the "entriega de novios" (the transfer or delivery of the newly weds). The entriega was a formal exchange by which a family transferred a daughter to the groom's family as she became a wife. Through the interactive ritual of the two families the woman went from the control of one male (her father) into the control of another male (her husband). Enrique Lamadrid has noted that the entriega is a "folk wedding ceremony sung in verse, a subtle and complete counter ritual with roots in the religious customs and cultural conflicts of 19th century New Mexico." In the "entriega" songs the newly weds are told not to forget the communal values they learned and not to choose individualistic styles.(Enrique Lamadrid, "Las Entriegas," New Mexico Historical review, Jan. 1990; Juan B. Rael, "New Mexico Wedding Songs," Folklore Quarterly, June 1940).

Whatever the ritual leading to marriage, families join in providing gifts, making vows and celebrating by eating together. The married couple is always instructed on what they should do and what is expected of them.

Before the 1850s marriage vows often took place at a fairly young age, most people usually married, and there was little possibility for divorce - although separation was possible. Marriages were arranged by parents. The older members of the family had a tendency to interfere even after a couple married. It should be noted that a significant number of people usually lived in a consensual union.

Marriage was a social alliance among families and clans. Few people were single before the introduction of the capitalist mode of production. Separation from your spouse was unusual and divorce, often, unthinkable.

Before the 1850s marriage vows often took place at a fairly young age, most people usually married, and there was little possibility for divorce - although separation was possible. Marriages were arranged by parents. The older members of the family had a tendency to interfere even after a couple married. It should be noted that a significant number of people usually lived in a consensual union.

Marriage was a social alliance among families and clans. Few people were single before the introduction of the capitalist mode of production. Separation from your spouse was unusual and divorce, often, unthinkable.

From the 1850s on, the secular trend has been for marriage to occur at later age (although it is still fairly young in the state). As the society has modernized the number of the unmarried adults has grown [in absolute and relative terms]. Single status has become more acceptable. Marriage has become an individual choice for the specific purpose of attaining individual fulfillment. Marriages occur in the name of romantic love.

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explain childrearing in NM

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The number of children a couple had was larger in traditional horticultural and agricultural societies, although much more limited in hunting and gathering. As the society modernized the number of children declined as fertility dropped. The extended family, dependent on long-term kinship networks, permitted young people to have children even though they may have not been fully prepared for the responsibility. Biological parenthood was not immediately translated into social parenthood, since others (particularly grandparents) often took on the responsibilities attached to child rearing.

The nuclear family, on the other hand, could not transfer the responsibilities of social parenthood to immediate relatives since they were not to be found near-by. In that circumstance it has become ever more necessary to establish social institutions that would be the social equivalent of the uncles, aunts and grandparents: childcare centers, schools, and even television has taken up the slack.

The fertility rate has tended to decrease for a number of reasons: more education, a higher degree of social and geographic mobility, the acceptance of deferring child birth into some time in the future, the availability of technical means to avoid or terminate pregnancies, and the degree of anonymity that adults enjoy in modern urban society.

Before 1850, children were an integral part of the family, they were not separated from other generations, and had shared norms. This was not surprising since the social and cultural environment did not change in drastic or rapid fashion. In traditional New Mexico families children worked.

The modernization of New Mexico had its impact on children and the raising of children. After 1850, slowly children began to be perceived by the adult world as impressionable, even vulnerable or "innocent."

The modernization of New Mexico had its impact on children and the raising of children. After 1850, slowly children began to be perceived by the adult world as impressionable, even vulnerable or "innocent."

Children in pre-1850 times had more functional social ties with the extended family and its adults. But as individualism expanded, and the family got smaller, social relations within the household became more intense with the social parents, as all the other members of the family diminished. This was a consequence of the transformation of the extended family into conjugal and nuclear families.

As capitalism took production out of the household, the productive function of children ceased. Private life became more widespread than it had been before. Women who performed numerous different functions within the household but shared child rearing with other adults, after 1850 found themselves with child rearing responsibilities and fewer adults to help. The supervision of children became the sole province of mothers. This was one more arena where the family became more isolated from kin.

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Explain the family and working within the home

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Work Within The Home

The Native American and Hispanic families prior to the U.S. seizure of the southwest, were involved in production and consumption. Indeed, the family was the main mechanism for organizing, allocating and mobilizing labor. The family was also the primary means for consuming goods. Production took place within the family and the kinship system. The process of economic modernization in the 19th century transformed the productive functions of the family; the market became the main instrument for the organization and allocation of the labor force. This meant that economic production moved away from the home. And that meant the separation of men and women. In this early period of commercial capitalism, men left the home and the household became the permanent space of women, children and the elderly.
Rapid changes in the economy, society, culture and technology changed the nature, structure and functions of the New Mexican family. The shift from a subsistence economy and way of life and the inroads of a market economy transformed the economic role of women within the family. Sandra L. Myres, notes that,

"Most family needs were supplied through a system of home production which involved the entire family, a system in which women's economic role was a recognized and valued one. But as frontier conditions gave way to more stable, structured communities, and men moved into the market place, [producing goods and services for monetary gain, women's work ceased to be seen as productive or necessary for family survival… Banned from the marketplace and displaced from their earlier economic roles within the family, women sought a new meaning for their lives, and this was provided by the idealization of women as the moral guardians of home and family life." (Westering Women and the Frontier Experience, 1800-1915, UNM Press, 1982, p. 6).

The home, in other words, became another feature of the industrial revolution; the industrial home. The household became integrated and dependent of a modern technology with its numerous networks and grids of electric power, transportation and marketing. At the same time, that the household became more technologically dependent, it was possible to be more independent of kinship and the community at large. If before it was necessary to have other family members fetch water from a river, a well or a mechanical water pump, technology now allowed one person to just turn a knob. And if before free time was filled with family oral tradition filled with stories and folklore, the new times offered the same stories without the family members by means of the radio, television or the Internet.

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Technological innovations transformed the domestic household, in the process making the family ever more dependent on the commodities available in the market economy. The self-sufficiency of earlier times came to an end. There are numerous examples:

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· The wood dependent open hearth was replaced by the cast-iron stove (marking a shift from wood cutting to purchasing coal (local lumbering gave way to coal mining)
· The water well was replaced by the mechanical and later the electric water pump, which, in turn was replaced by municipal piped water
· The candle and the kerosene lamp gave way to the gas light and the electric light, staying late became a real possibility
Local fresh products were supplemented with canned food, boxed foods and a greater diversity of food supplied - thus allowing a more diverse diet
· The need for preserving food meant a shift from dried or salted goods to the freezing and refrigeration of fish, meats, vegetables and fruits.
· Instead of making one's own clothes, families could purchase clothes made elsewhere. If before clothes were difficult to wash, linen and cotton changed that.
· By the 1920s-1940s homes in New Mexico were penetrated by wires, pipes, vents as electricity, water supply and sewer lines entered the homes
· Electricity revolutionized the home in a way that no one could imagine: the outside world penetrated it through the telephone, the radio, television. Electricity also allowed the incorporation of electro domestic devices into household work - from stoves to washing machines, from refrigerators to microwaves.

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explain work outside the home

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The introduction of modern industrial technology into housework permitted the incorporation of more women into the paid labor force outside the home. That meant that both males and females left the household for a significant period of time, something not usual during before the 19th century. (See lecture notes).

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explain the social class of spouses

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1) number of children born shaped by class background: the lower the class the more children. Also, the poor tend to get children at an earlier age.
2) death rates: the lower the class, the higher the death rate
3) illness rates: illness is more recurrent in the lower classes they have less access to doctors
4) desertion and divorce rates: seem to be more pronounced in the lower classes
5) emotional stress: the poorer, the higher the stress level and incidence
6) type of education and where it is obtained
7) wealth inherited
8) social contacts available

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explain divorce in NM

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The social phenomena of divorce is something that Sociology studies. The Sociology of divorce pays attention to the conditions that produce a divorce; the cultural milieu where a divorce takes place, the social and economic implications of divorce, and the institutional framework that hinders or makes possible a divorce. (A fact: Divorce became available in Ireland for the first time in February 1997).

Definition of Divorce: "Divorce is the legal procedure used to end a marriage. Once a divorce is granted the man and woman are no longer husband and wife. When a man and women get married they enter into a contract of marriage which is recognized by our court system as carrying certain responsibilities. Divorce is the legal mechanism for ending the contract of marriage." (Source: http://www.lawstreet.com/lawguide/NMDIBAS.html#divorce)

Definition of "Legal Separation." "A legal separation is a court-ordered arrangement for a husband and wife to live separately, usually for a limited period of time. Legal separation often precedes a final divorce proceeding." (Source: http://www.lawstreet.com/lawguide/NMDIBAS.html#divorce)
Definition of Annulment: "Divorce ends an existing marriage, but annulment establishes that a marriage never legally existed (e.g., where the couple was not legally old enough to marry). (Source: http://www.lawstreet.com/lawguide/NMDIBAS.html#divorce)

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explain divorce during the pre-hispanic period

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Before the Spanish conquest of New Mexico, the Native American communities had matrilineal and matrilocal families. Descent and inheritance was determined through the mother's family. In the Native American communities it was possible to "divorce" by merely following certain customary practices. The dominant culture and social institutions allowed a divorce to take occur, the customary practices were performed within the family. There was no written legal code that outlined the conditions under which divorce could take place.

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explain divorce during thespanish-colonial period

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The Spanish colonial regime that was imposed in New Mexico introduced "family law" - in other words, there were written guidelines that established who could marry, how the marriage took place, what the rights and responsibilities of people who were married. The legal code did not allow the breaking up of a marriage. Family law supported, maintained and defended the patriarchal, patrilineal and patrilocal family system that the Spanish colonial regime brought to the southwest. Since marriage was supposed to be an enduring condition, once a union took place, it was not supposed to be broken.

Spanish colonial regime fostered familism and did not allow divorce. The legal system, like the Catholic Church (which was a state-sponsored religion) did not permit divorce. From 1598 to 1821 the Spanish colonial authorities did not recognize, nor allowed, divorces.

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explain divorce during the mexican period

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During the "Mexican period" (1821-1846) the Spanish family codes were preserved, consequently, divorce was nor permitted. Moreover, marriage was not "civil" but had to be before a Catholic priest.

Exceptions to the Rule: It should be noted that during the Spanish colonial period and the Mexican period, there were exceptions to the rule. In other words, it was possible for the civil authorities or the Catholic Church to "annul" a marriage, but this was not a civil procedure that was easily accessible to everyone. The wealthy or powerful could petition the civil or religious authorities and an annulment could be granted, under special circumstances.

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explain divorce during the territorial period

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The United States takeover of New Mexico did not change the legal guidelines on divorce. It did change the guidelines on marriage, before marriage had to take place before a Catholic priest, now a civil official could perform marriage. From 1846 to 1900, divorce was not permitted in New Mexico.

The United States Experience with Exceptions: Many states in the United States, before 1846, granted divorce requests under very specific circumstances. Pennsylvania was the first state to legalize divorce. However, it required the action of the state Supreme Court. The petitioner had to prove that the partner was sterile or impotent, and engaged in bigamy or adultery (if female), or the wife had been deserted for four years. Early in the 19th century jurisdiction over divorce proceedings was given to circuit courts and county courts.

Courts could deny the request. The grounds for divorce were increased over the years: desertion for only two years, cruel and barbarous treatment of a wife, desertion, marriage procured by fraud or coercion, two years' imprisonment for a felony, habitual drunkenness.

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explain the english experience with regards to marriage

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In England, for example, the Marriage Act of 1754, declared null, all marriages not celebrated by a priest. In 1836 England established that persons could be married according to any form they choose. In England, until 1836 marriage was a religious ceremony, after that date it was a civil contract, at the pleasure of the parties. At that time divorce could be obtained only by the intervention and granting of a civil institution (a court, a legislature). Divorces, if granted, required an act of the English Parliament. That was the case until 1857! From 1670-1857 the English Parliament granted only 325 divorces, of which 321 were granted to men. Divorce became a civil procedure in England in 1857 but available only to men. England granted women the right to ask for a divorce as a civil procedure only in 1923.)

In 1897 for the first time a married woman was given legal autonomous rights as far as the law. Before that date a married woman was an "appendage" of her husband and consequently could not even request a higher authority to grant her a divorce. But in 1897 the law established that "a married woman shall sue and be sued as if she was unmarried." Laws of NM, 82nd legislative assembly, chapter 73, p. 162, Santa Fe, NM, 1897)
In 1900 divorce became legal in the United States; the law applied to the NM territory. However, there were very strict guidelines and procedures. If a divorce was granted, it was necessary for the court to determine who was at fault, and the decision had moral connotations.

On March 20, 1901 the New Mexico legislative assembly passed a law granting the right to divorce in New Mexico. It prescribed the grounds for divorce. They were: abandonment, adultery, impotency, "when the wife, at the time of the marriage, was pregnant by another than her husband - said husband having been ignorant thereof," cruel and inhuman treatment, neglect in the part of the husband to support the wife according to his means, station in life and ability, habitual drunkenness, conviction for a felony and imprisonment thereof. (1901 Acts of the Legislative Assembly of the Territory of New Mexico, 34th Session, Albuquerque, 1901, pp. 113-118). It should be noted that it was necessary to establish who was at "fault." This fault clause has been called the "recrimination clause." The NM law also established that "adultery by wife subsequent to abandonment by husband is bar to wife's suit for divorce." (Chavez v Chavez, 39 NM 480, 50 P 2d 264, 101, A.L. R 635).

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explain statehood and divorce legistlation

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As late as 1921 NM Statutes (sections 1497-1499) referred to women as of "chaste reputation" as a premise and a requirement.
In 1941 and 1953 NM legislation still asserted that the husband was the "head of the household" and he could choose where the family lived. All other decisions were given to the husband as well. The wife was told that she had to accept the decisions. (NM Statutes, 1953, section 65.202)

Women who were married had no legal recognition "the very being or legal existence of the woman is suspended during the marriage, or at least is incorporated and consolidated into that of the husband, under whose wing, protection, and cover, performs everything."

In the case Baca vs Baca, the court decided that "Husband as head of the community acts in representative capacity with respect to wife's interest in community proper…" (Baca vs Baca, 30 NM Reporter, 541, 240, 803) Such decisions, of course, implied a dominant value system that was patriarchal and patrilineal.

In 1933 the NM Statutes were amended adding incompatibility as a ground for divorce. The recrimination clause was maintained. (NM Statutes 1953 Annotated, Vol. 5, 1854, p. 27)

In 1938 the divorce rate per 1000 married was 1.9, thereafter it began to slowly climb to 2.3 /1000 in 1944. With the end of World War II, as American soldiers returned to NM, the divorce rate gained, reaching 7.4 per 1000 married in 1946.

From 1946 to 1950 the divorce rate subsided to a low point of 3.0 in 1960. Then the sexual revolution exploded, social roles were redefined, more women joined the paid labor force and the divorce rate again climbed. (1960: 3.0; 1962:3.7; 1965: 3.6; 1970: 3.9; 1971:4.7).

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explain religion in this course and nm

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In this course we have studied the importance of economic modes of production, their organization, basic features and changes in the socio-economic history of New Mexico. The economic system provided the means for the physical maintenance and expansion of society. Wee have looked at the nature, structure and functions of the family as well as some of its changes since the 16th century. Discussion on the economy concentrated on production, exchange and distribution while analysis of the family paid attention to patterns of social interaction, social support and biological reproduction. Now we turn to cultural patterns prescribing behavior.

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what is animism?

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[Animism defined: The belief that within ordinary things, animals and/or people there is an invisible, intangible, force - the soul].

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----'s approach attempted to define religion on the basis of the content of certain ideas [the idea of god and the idea of soul]. However, anthropologists and sociologists did not consider the content of ideas the central feature of what constitutes a religion. Robert Lowie, for example, stressed that the critical element that is basic to religion is the "religious experience" that believers have. That experience is characterized by a feeling that one is dealing with something that is unique, awesome, sacred, powerful, holy, extraordinary as well as divine.

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Tylor

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-------- elaborated on the element of "religious experience" in a systematic manner. In his book The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, he defined religion as follows: "a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, binding together those who adhere to these beliefs and practices in a single moral community."

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Emile Durkheim

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For Durkheim and sociologists of religion a central feature of religion is the element of the sacred.

what is sacred

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[Sacred is the opposite of profane. Profane is simply that which is considered ordinary, usual in everyday life].

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what is meant by sacred?

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Durkheim states that religion refers to "beliefs and practices RELATIVE TO SACRED THINGS." Anything can be sacred - if people believe that the object or concept has the quality of sacredness. The sacred nature of a given thing is a function of the believer and not of the thing itself. That which is considered to be sacred is then perceived as having a special meaning and value; and it is treated with reverence and respect. The sacred, it is implicit, has extra-ordinary powers and qualities. The sacred is perceived by those who believe that something has a sacred quality as not of this world, it is considered something out of the ordinary; when something is considered sacred it is supposed to transcend everyday life. (Examples: the Bible, the Koran, the Torah, the Cross, and the Katshinas).

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what are a system of beliefs?

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Any belief system is a set of related symbols whose meaning is commonly understood.

A system of religious beliefs relates to the object or concepts worshipped, the ceremonies followed [called rituals] and the ideals revered [what is prescribed and proscribed]. Beliefs play a major role in the creation and perpetuation of the sacred. Beliefs, based on faith, sustain and underlie the sense of the sacred.

Religious beliefs, usually, involve some divine being(s) or force(s) who are not of this world, but outside of it. [Religion can exist without a belief in divine or supernatural beings, such as "great truths"].

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what is meant by a system of beliefs and practices?

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Beliefs are the conceptual aspects of religion, the actual practice of those beliefs refer to rituals. A ritual is a ceremonial practice, a prescribed act in a given religious context.

A religious ritual [defined as a ceremonial form of behavior] is sacred, while also symbolizing the sacred that it portrays. Rituals have some very important features:

a) prescribed behavior is repeated in a given pattern, in a given context, and memorized,

b) repetition is a central aspect of ritual, which provides certainty,

c) the ritual is expected to elicit a sense of humility, reverence, awe, ecstasy or terror - depending of the context.

The generation of a particular set of feelings is central to the function of rituals. Through rituals a belief system is represented and taught - as well as simplified. By repetition people learn the meanings of the religious belief system.

[It should be noted that rituals are always connected with religion, but it is possible to have rituals that are not religious in character].

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what is a community of worship?

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The definition states that religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to the sacred "BINDING TOGETHER THOSE WHO ADHERE TO THESE BELIEFS AND PRACTICES IN A SINGLE MORAL COMMUNITY." Religion, in other words, is more than just an aggregation of objects, beliefs and rituals that some people consider sacred. Religion is a SOCIAL PHENOMENA, it is a shared feeling of communion with one another and with a sacred realm. And this is the major element that sociologists study, for religion is a cultural/ideological glue bringing persons together into a "moral community."

Marvin Harris has written, "when people feel that they are in communion with occult and mysterious forces and supernatural beings, what they are really experiencing is the force of social life. For Durkheim, the essence of being human was to be born into and sustained by society and culture. In our awe of the sacred, we express our dependence on society in symbolic form." [Marvin Harris, Culture, People, Nature].

Since religion contributes to the creation of a community, it contributes to the definition of boundaries (who belongs or not), rules and regulations (to join and stay in the community), structure and organization.

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According to Durkheim religion fulfilled a number of functions:

what are they?

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a) it is way of recognizing the power of society

b) diminishes dissent within the community, and consequently integrates and leads to social cohesion.

Durkheim writes, "By providing a context in which relationships develop, by establishing norms of 'right behavior' (and sanctions against antisocial conduct) within a community, and by offering ways of atoning for infractions through prayers, fasting, or penance, religion enhances security in the community by acting as a kind of social cement." [The Elementary Forms of Religious Life]

c) compels conformity with prescribed behavior and consequently is a mechanism of social control. Religion provides norms that promote integration; as such is a group-maintaining institution.

d) provides meaning and purpose. Religion helps to overcome fear or anxiety about past, present or future. It offers to interpret the world, offering sense and understanding, and the place of people in the overall context of things.

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Explain religion and magic

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Religion and magic are very different, although at times people might behave in a magical fashion and claim that they are doing something that is religious.

James Frazer in his book The Golden Bough noted in a religious community the attitude of the participants is one of uncertainty. In such a situation believers tends to behave in a humble manner and usually ask, request, plead for favors and dispensations from the realm of the sacred.

Such a behavior in which the supplicants do not control the outcome is considered religious. Prayer is the critical element in religious behavior.

However, if the people thought they were in control of the entities and forces ruling over the cosmos and the world, and the believers acted with certainty about the outcome of what they are trying to produce, and there is neither supplication nor pleading; then we are witnessing magic.

It should be noted that if religion has rituals that can be described as prayers; magic have rituals that could be called spells. A spell is a way to compel or to bribe the supernatural into producing a particular result.

Prayer among the Navaho, for example, should be letter perfect in order to be effective -- which means, in order to be heard. But even if letter perfect the Navahos do not expect that they will get the results they have requested.

In prayer the believers are not in control of their destiny; in magic the believers are attempting to take power away from the supernatural for human ends. Frazer called magic "false science" (in the sense that it assumed a cause-effect relationship). Zuni priests, for example, use yucca suds to produce rain -- that is a form of magic.

Needless to say, it may be possible for people who are believers to cross the line between requesting and trying to persuade. And this could go back and forth.

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Explain society as the profane and the sacred

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As societies become more modern the boundaries between the sacred and the profane become larger; the realm of religion and the ordinary become separated.

Native American Religion

At the time of the Spanish conquest of New Mexico, the Native American population of New Mexico was animistic. Animism is the system of beliefs and practices that assumes that everything in nature has an "anima" (a spiritual quality). In other words, Native American animism believed that everything in nature had a spirit. Thus, there was a spirit of the water, a spirit of the clouds, a spirit of the mountains, etc. The sun and the moon were special spiritual forces, so were the clouds, thunder and the wind.

The Native American communities in New Mexico did not have a separate, highly structured and bureaucratized religious system. There is no separation of the sacred and the profane, in fact, everything around their community and environment was perceived to be sacred and people acted accordingly.

The Native American communities relied on shamen; that is, religious leader with special ascribed knowledge of the spirit world and the special rituals that had to be performed. One was born to be a shaman. Shamanistic functions were temporary.

The native Americans of New Mexico did not have written rule or codes about religious beliefs and practices; but they had a very rich oral tradition and pictographs. The verbal and pictographic knowledge was passed on from generation to generation; this was done through the clan system. The family preserved the religious knowledge of the community. There was no large body of religious specialists who were just involved in religious matters.

By 1598 all of the native American communities throughout the southwest believed that they had originated in this region, that they came from below the ground, and that they had climbed through a whole in order to be in the sunlight and then traveled in all directions. The image of emergence resembles the growth of plants. The religious beliefs of the native population of the southwest also asserted that Navajos; Pueblos, Apaches and others are descendants of the Ancient Ones or the Holy Ones.

The New Mexico Indian Education Association relates the following story about the origins of the Tewa [only a portion is provided here, it is a very long story], "In the beginning, the Tewa were living beneath Sandy Place Lake, far to the north of New Mexico. It was a world like ours, except that it was dark and death did not exist; no one ever died. Men and women shared their world with other creatures called supernaturals. Some of the supernaturals were the first mothers of the Tewa: Blue Corn Woman was the Summer Mother; and White Corn Maiden was the Winter Mother. The two corn Mothers asked a man to find a way for the people to leave the lake. After being asked four times, he finally agreed. He went to the north, but he saw only mist and haze. Then he went to the west, south, and east, but again saw only mist and haze. He reported to the Corn Mothers and the people after each of these trips that he had seen nothing and that the world above was still green or unripe. Since the Mothers wanted him to go above, however, he did and came to an open place where he saw fierce animals and buzzards. He saw mountain lions there and many kids of cats. There were also wolves, coyotes, foxes, vultures and crows. The animals knocked the man down and scratched him. Then they said to him, 'Get up. We are your friends.' When he stood up, his wounds healed immediately. The animals gave him a bow, arrows, and a quiver. They dressed him in buckskin, painted his face black, and tied the feathers of the vultures on his hair. 'You have been accepted,' they said to him. 'These things we have given you are what you will always use. Now you are ready to go.' When the man returned to the people, he came as Mountain Lion or the Hunt Chief. This is how the first Created Person came into being. When he came to the place where the people waited, he announced his arrival by calling to them like a fox. The people rejoiced, and said, 'We have been accepted.' After this happened, the Hunt Chief took an ear of white corn, handed it to one of the other men, and said, 'You are to lead and care for all of the people during the summer.' To another man, he also handed an ear of white corn and told him, 'You shall lead and care for the people during the winter. They joined the Hunt Chiefs the second and third Created Persons." [New Mexico Indian Education Association, Indian Perspectives in New Mexico History, Santa Fe, 1991).

The Navajos also have their own origin story. It relates that "The first World was Black. The living things in the first, Black World were the Mist people. They had no definite form and lived in a world of darkness and dampness. The First Woman was formed along with yellow corn on the western side of the Black World. First man was formed on the eastern side. After these two Beings were created, many more followed. But the people were unhappy; they quarreled. First Woman, First Man and all the peaceful people decided to leave. They climbed to the second or Blue World. The Bird people lived in this world. The powerful Swallow people made it impossible for the Black World people to survive there. There was fighting and killing, just as there had been before. The Black World people found an opening into the second World, where they climbed through to the third, or Yellow World. Here they discovered a great river crossing the land from north to south. The rivers and mountains were not as we know them now for they, like the people, were ghostly and formless in the darkness. There was no sun. There was no brightness. The Mountain people of the Yellow World welcomed the Black World people and said, 'All will be well if you leave the water monster in peace.' But coyote, who was too curious ignored what the Mountain people told him, 'I a going to look at the clear water,' he sad. And he did. Coyote found two children of the water monster. He liked them so much and thought they were so beautiful that he did not care about the water monster. Coyote lifted the two lovely children out of the water and stole away with them. When water monster called for his children, they did not answer. He looked everywhere and when he could not find them, he guessed the new people took them. 'I will use my water power to get my children back,' he said. And he filled up the oceans until they overflowed. He created a terrible flood. To escape the flood, the Black World people used all their powers, took four mountains, and piled them on top of one another. At the very top they planted a giant reed and it grew and grew and grew until it pierced the sky. They could now reach the fourth World. The people and the animals silently climbed inside the reed. On the fourth night, they came out into the fourth Word. But even though they arrived safely, they shouted and argued. The men and women quarreled loudly, each claiming to be better than then other. They decided to go their separate ways. The men made boats and crossed the river into the central plains. The women were left to farm, but they did not know the special rituals the men used for good crops. Meanwhile, the men tended their own fields. This separation continued for four years. But they still were not happy because neither liked doing all the farm labor. And when both the men and women realized how much they depended upon one another, they decided to live together again." (The story goes on until the water monster child is returned and then there is peace and prosperity). [New Mexico Indian Education Association, Indian Perspectives in New Mexico History, Santa Fe, 1991).

For the Native American peoples of the southwest, life and the people comes from within the earth. This image resembles the plant world, particularly corn. Corn is sacred, it is spiritual, and it represents mother and healing. It is at the core of Native American beliefs. For the native population the process of "emergence went through four stages or levels. The four stages resemble the four stages of the growth of corn. It has been stated that, "The Pueblos think of the four levels as planting, the crack in the earth where the corn comes up, when it forms the leaves and then the cob, and when it forms tassels and matures by forming pollen. Somewhere in the growth of corn, they postulate four stages and think of each world as being like a stage in the planting and maturation of a corn plant. They also think of each world level as representing a completion of a lesson, like learning how to overcome evil, learning how to live together in-groups, learning something else. The humans have to learn something as a precondition to emerge onto a next world." [New Mexico Indian Education Association, Indian Perspectives in New Mexico History, Santa Fe, 1991).

Corn is the main staple but has religious value. Corn is a fetish and as such it is sacred. The exchange of corn means friendship. When children are born two perfect corncobs are placed on each side of the baby. Corn dances are performed to obtain successful harvests.

When corn is to be planted the Zuni consecrate the field; a shaman does the consecration. The shaman announces when the planting is to begin. Sacred corn kernels are used near the center of the field. The kernels represent north, south, east, west, up and down. Four days of prayer and fasting takes place before the planting; women on men's head sprinkle corn pollen if one is to join a clan. ("Zuni Agriculture," El Palacio, December 1960, 181-201.) To get rain, horticultural peoples engaged in sacred rain dances.

The native American population of the southwest, like many other traditional cultures, organized their perception of the world by using a binary perspective, a duality - everything is in twos: White Corn Mother and Blue Corn Mother, male and female, hot and cold, winter and summer, day and night.

Pueblos religious folklore and beliefs tells us a hostile nature that needs to be persuaded so that you can do what you need to do, spirits are alive and can be found in all objects in nature; prayer is performed to persuade the spirit world ad to show respect. Prayer has to be visible and usually collective in nature. Illness occurs when one does wrong, when the rules are not observed. Bad behavior destroys harmony in the community and in nature; it produces illness. This is a central set of beliefs among the Pueblos. The Navajos believed that the world was dominated by supernatural forces and those forces have an impact on daily life. The universe is somewhat threatening but orderly if the right rituals and behavior is followed.

Rituals are very important for all the Native American communities (for example, in sports one has to run east to west, never in the opposite direction).

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explain the religious changes pre-1598

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Hunters and gatherers were animistic. Everything in nature, it was assumed, had an “anima” - a spiritual dimension. So there are literally thousands of spirits in the mountains, the clouds, the tees, the animals. The world of nature is a spiritual world.

The horticultural Pueblos also had an animistic perspective. Gods, spirits, dead ancestors inhabit the physical world and the spiritual one. [This is similar to the Greeks and Zeus or the Egyptians with Osiris.

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Explain religious changes from 1598 to the contribution to religion

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The Spanish colonial regime was based on the alliance of the Spanish colonial authorities and the Catholic Church. Indeed, the Vatican granted by of papal encyclicals the right of Spain and Portugal to colonize the so-called “New World.” Moreover, the Spanish monarchy in Madrid received from the Vatican what was then called “the Royal Patronage” [Patronato Real]. This was a very unique power by which the Pope delegated on to the Spanish monarchs the right to exercise authority over church authorities in the New World. In other words, the Spanish colonial regime agreed to spread Catholicism in the New World and the church authorities in Rome granted the Spanish monarchs the right to decide which Catholic religious orders will come to the New World [in the areas controlled by Spain], how many churches will be built and where, and how many priests there will be in the colonies. There will be no separation of church and state. The Catholic Church would support and defend the colonial regime and the colonial authorities would support and defend the Catholic church.

By the time that New Mexico was conquered by Spain, the Protestant Reformation had been going on for 81 years. The Protestant Reformation began in present day north Germany and the Netherlands. It was a movement in which former Catholic priests “protested” the religious practices, teaching and organizational structure of the Catholic Church. [The Protestant favored more autonomy from Rome, disagree differentiating between secular and regular priests, and were friendlier to the commercial revolution going on at the time in portions of western Europe. Indeed, one aspect of the Reformation - known as the Calvinist movement, claimed that contrary to what the Catholic Church said about capital accumulation [the Catholic Church opposed entrepreneurial capital accumulation calling it avarice and greed] - making and accumulating money and profit was a “sign” that someone was self -sacrificing and had the blessing of God. The Calvinist argument - maintained that it was ok to work hard, save and invest in order to make more capita. That it was a sin to accumulate capital and spend it on yourself. But that the accumulation of capital - yet engaging in self-denial and deferring gratification, was a sign of how spiritual one was. Thus, the Protestant Reformation was friendly to capitalist “industry” and “hard work.” But the Protestant Churches opposed “fun.” [Calvinists are called “Puritans in the US and Huguenots in France].

Wars were fought from 1517 between Protestant territories and Catholic ones. The Catholic regions usually were controlled by the nobility and the aristocracies of Europe, while the Protestant regions were more commercialized. Thus, by the time that Spain begins its colonization of the hemisphere; the Protestant Reformation was underway in Western Europe.

Wars were fought from 1517 between Protestant territories and Catholic ones. The Catholic regions usually were controlled by the nobility and the aristocracies of Europe, while the Protestant regions were more commercialized. Thus, by the time that Spain begins its colonization of the hemisphere; the Protestant Reformation was underway in Western Europe.

The Catholic Church relied on the religious order known as “Franciscans” to lead the counter-Reformation, that is, to oppose the teachings and influence of Protestantism. It will be Franciscan priests the ones that came to NM with the first Spanish colonial troops. The Catholic vs Protestant conflict found throughout Europe since the 16th century will be felt in NM as well - but particularly after 1848.

The Spanish colonial Catholic church brought to the new world the doctrine of the Divine right of Kings to rule.

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explain changes in religion in teh first catholic period

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The Catholic church was organized in such a way that there were two types of clergymen: seculars and regulars. Dale E. Landon writes,

“The medieval clergy was divided into two classes; the secular clergy and the regular clergy. The secular clergy (Lat. clerus saecularis) is the branch of the medieval clergy which deals with the Christian population. They are charged with the spiritual care of all Christians and therefore are essential to the functioning of the medieval Church in administering to the needs of the world. The regular clergy (Lat. clerus regularis) are those members of the Christian faith who have basically withdrawn from the world and live largely out of contact with the rest of the world. This class includes monks and nuns who live according to a recognized religious rule (Lat. regula). Their main goal is assuring their own salvation."

Typically, the Catholic Church used seculars to engage in missionary activity and colonial expansion in the New World. However, the Spanish colonial regime was so successful in its expansionist policies and conquered so much territory and native peoples that by 1598 there were no secular priest to come to New Mexico. So the Spanish colonial authorities and the Catholic hierarchy decided to use regular Franciscan priests. By 1581 three Franciscan priests had penetrated all the way into the Manzano mountains. Indeed, Franciscan regulars would be the ones established in New Mexico and engaging in missionary work. However, it was not the task of regular priests to do so. Regulars - lived by the “regula” - the rule and made a life of sacrifice and self-denial an integral part of their work. They also made vows of poverty. And when they began their missionary work, they also taught those qualities to the converted. The Franciscans, as noted, were opposed to the Reformation and to the social sectors that supported Calvinism and Lutheranism [the business classes]. Thus, the Franciscans will be opposed to capitalist modernity and its religious side.

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explain religious changes with the fransicians and the native population

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The Franciscans played a complex and interesting role in New Mexico religious history. First, they tried to impose upon the Pueblos the beliefs and practices of the Catholic Church [although not in that order]. In order to do their religious work they tried to get young kids to learn Spanish while they began the process of learning the five major languages of the Pueblos. They also attempted to liquidate the religious beliefs and practices of the Pueblos [which was not easy]. But at the very least, the Franciscans did as much as they could to destroy the artifacts that they identified with Pueblo animism. They attempted to impose Catholic religious doctrine and rituals - incorporating the Catholic practices into the religious traditions of the Pueblos. [They had learned this method in Mexico and Central America].

The Franciscans intended to impose on an animistic society a monotheistic religious system. This was not easy, so they ended up integrating native American spirits and Catholic saints in order to make the European religion more acceptable to the Pueblos. [Such a process of integration is called “religious syncretism.”]

As in the rest of Europe the Spanish colonial authorities used the arguments of the Divine Rights of Kings to rule over conquered territories and peoples. Moreover, it was claimed that imposing Catholicism was for the benefit of the native population. The encomienda, as it has been noted, had a religious component since the Spaniards who received a grant of native labor [encomendados] had the responsibility of providing religious training to the native laborers. The Franciscans opposed the encomienda because they saw such religious responsibility of the encomendero as trespassing into the religious authority of the priests. So, the Franciscans and the encomenderos will confront each other over who had the right to decide the fate of the native population.

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explain religion and the pueblo revolt

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The Spanish colonial authorities, at the behest of the Franciscans, outlawed a) Pueblo religious practices and rituals, no public singing or dancing, destroyed the prayer sticks and katsina masks and dolls and kivas were desecrated.

In 1640 small pox killed 10%bof the Pueblos. The Pueblos interpreted the illness as the result of the community not keeping “balance” with nature. In other words, the illness was interpreted by the Pueblos as a punishment. Their shaman told them that they had failed to carry on the Pueblo rituals and nature was punishing them.

From 1667-1672 there were widespread drought and hunger. Yet, the Franciscans did not permit the Pueblos to engage in rain dances. So the Pueblos interpreted the drought as the fault of the Franciscans.

1675 - 47 shaman were arrested and charged with witchcraft and sorcery. Three shaman were hung.

1680 the Pueblo Revolt began. Led by Popé, a Tewa medicine man who belonged to a moiety, from the Pueblo of San Juan. Popé and others conveyed to their followers that their spirit world and the dead had ordered the revolt.

The Pueblo revolt of 1680 put an end to the encomienda. The revolt was led by Pope, a Pueblo shaman and, consequently, someone who did not accept the religious authority of the Franciscans. The work of the shaman in some aspects was similar to the work of the priests. Animism flourished once again.

When the Spanish colonial regime was restored (1693) during the Second Spanish Colonial period, the encomienda did not return, but the Franciscans did. But now, the Franciscans did not have to clash with the encomienda system.

[During the period we call “Pueblo Independence” the Europeans were beginning to react to the extraordinary and profound work of Isaac Newton and his Principia Mathematica which initiates the modern era in western European history. It initiates what will become known as the Age of Reason or the Enlightenment. Newton will stress that everything in nature follows scientific laws and that those laws can be known through the use of reason and not faith. God, in the 18th century, will b e represented with the metaphor of the “Great Architect - rather than a father, a shepherd or lord].

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explain religion in The Reconquest and the Second Spanish Colonial Period

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In 1693 when Diego de Vargas begins the reconquest of New Mexico it was called a “reconquista” [just the term used by the Spaniards when they “reconquered” Spain back to Catholicism - away from Islam]. And the reconquest was presented as a military and religious reconquest - thus, “Our lady of the Rosary” will be “La Conquistadora.” This was a political, military and religious reaffirmation of the domination of Catholicism. Spanish colonial rule had been imposed, again.

From 1693-1821 the Franciscans built many adobe churches (incorporating native construction practices) and accepted many religious rituals and sacred placed of the Pueblos. For example, Chimayó had been a sacred Pueblo place for curing the ill. During these years, there was mutual influence from Spanish to Pueblo, and the reverse as well.

Julian Samora has written,

"The power of the Roman Catholic Church in New Mexico grew steadily. No one could escape its absolute authority. The Church controlled not only the Indians but the Spanish and mestizo population as well. It was in part a spiritual control - control over the souls and consciences of the people. The colonists, isolated as they were from the outside world, were especially susceptible to this control. In the villages, they relied heavily on the Church for their social contacts and recreation. The Church was the center of the community life and the friars were often the only educated persons in the community.” [ Julian Samora and Patricia Vandel Simon, A History of the Mexican People, p. 51].

During the second Spanish colonial period that NM sees the further development of the institution of the church, that is, a body of professional people whose work is to deal with religious matters - as a specialization. The church had written rules, roles, and relationships as well as formalized procedures. It had a body of teachings and a theology that had been elaborated for centuries. It was codified and written down. Such teachings required people with literacy to have access to it. One was not born a priest; one had to become one through schooling.

For the Franciscans salvation was obtained by working with the structured and hierarchical Catholic clergy. This was very different from what the Protestant Reformation had taught [which was learned in the eastern seaboard colonies of England]. In the so-called “Anglo” version salvation was not a communal effort but a personal one. It was the result of personal effort and did not require the work of priests. Thus, Protestantism meant that salvation was something that you did on your own. Moreover, it stressed a direct personal connection between the believer and “God.” The Protestant believer relied on reading the Bible [requiring literacy] and personally understanding it. This is a highly “individualistic” enterprise. The Catholic message, on the other hand, was to believe and to rely on community and family.

The Catholic Church in NM had a well structured, centralized, and hierarchical and dominated from the Vatican authority system. Protestantism relied on local church ministers, often lay people who are not priests. Protestantism, by its very nature, would lead to the creation of numerous religious denominations [Presbyterians, Methodists, Lutherans, Baptists, etc].

In NM, however, the Catholic Church was isolated from the Mexican religious authorities of Chihuahua and further south. Distance contributed to the isolation. Moreover, the southwest was not that important to “old Mexico.” From 1760 -1830 not a single church official from Mexico visited the region. There were neither bishops nor archbishops.

By the late 18th century (1790s) the Penitente organization began to play a more public role in New Mexican rural society. The Penitentes had been organized by the Franciscan clergy. The Penitentes were lay people highly religious who aided the Catholic priests in their work. The Penitentes can be defined as a lay organization with numerous responsibilities and functions. Those functions were religious, economic and social in nature. The Penitente took care of the family, the acequia, the maintenance of the Catholic Church, provided economic assistance to the priests and helped with harvesting crops. They also assisted couples who were to be married and needed to build a place near their parents’ homes. The Penitente organization was open only to males, and it certainly preserved and fostered a patriarchal society. [See Michael P. Carroll, The Penitente Brotherhood: Patriarchy and Hispano Catholicism in New Mexico, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002]

At the end of the 19th century New Mexico remained a fairly isolated territory. Yet, there were numerous forces - not far away - that will have a profound impact on the region. First, the Enlightenment - begun in the 1700s in France and England, had spread to the 13 British colonies and to the Spanish colonies in Latin America.

By 1750 the British industrial revolution had begun. Twenty six later (1776) the 13 colonies declared independence and used the very argument of economic and political liberalism to justify independence. The first successful anti-colonial movement in the world. In 1789 the French revolution began, the first successful social revolution in the world.

By 1808 the French revolutionary armies had invaded Spain and produced a vacuum of political authority among the Spanish colonial regime in Latin America. Latin America began its wars of independence.


The Catholic Church in NM, however, continued doing its work as if nothing was happening elsewhere. The outside world seemed - and was - far removed. At the time Catholicism remained the only religion permitted in the southwest.

Yet, even within the ranks of the Franciscans there were priests who identified with modernity and the Enlightenment; but they were torn, for they also identified with the extended family, village economic production for use and the traditional ways. One of these priests was Father Antonio José Martínez (1793-1867). [More on Martinez in class]

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explain The United States, Economic Modernization and Religion in New Mexico

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As the United States seized control of the New Mexico territory a number of changes drastically transformed the religious system.

1848 the United States military established the separation of church and state. The Catholic Church no longer will be the religion promoted by the government (the nation state), as it had been during the Spanish colonial period and the Mexican period.

As United States claimed sovereignty, the Catholic Church had to adjust to that political change. That meant that the Catholic hierarchy will have to answer to Catholic authorities in St Louis and not in Chihuahua. The Franciscan clergy did not appreciate that shift. It meant, among other things, that the Catholic Church - which had been - the unchallenged and dominant religious institution now found itself a minority church within a country that was predominantly Protestant. This had numerous consequences on the number of priests, how they operated and their allegiances. Interestingly enough, a new form of segmentation will be experienced. The priests in New Mexico spoke Spanish but the church hierarchy they had to answer to spoke English and French. Moreover, the American Catholic Church will be dominated by secular priests and not regular priests like the Franciscans were.

By 1849 new English and French speaking priests arrived to New Mexico. They originated in the east coast of the US or St. Louis. That same year Baptist missionaries entered the territory. At last, the Catholic Church came face to face with the Protestant Reformation in New Mexico. It had taken 332 years!

In a report issued in 1850 one of the American priests noted that there were just 19 priests dealing with the spiritual needs of New Mexicans. [Note, the Franciscans dealt with more than spiritual aspects of their faith. This will become an issue of conflict.] This same year Presbyterian and Methodist missionaries began to work in NM. The process of religious diversification had begun.

In 1851 Archbishop John Baptiste Lamy, from St Louis, arrived to Santa Fe. He was a close friend of “Kit Carson” (detested by the Franciscans and the northern Hispanic communities because of his collaboration with US military forces in 1846-1848). Soon conflict broke out between the Catholic priests and the Mexican ones. The government imposed by the United States in New Mexico will side with Lamy. One of the issues: the French speaking priests preached that the Catholic Church should not concern itself with social, economic or political matters but only with uses of the spirit. The Franciscans argues that spiritual matters could be addressed only of temporal, daily issues, were dealt with. [Such as land grants and water rights.]

From 1851 to 1854 much tension developed. By 1854 Lamy announced that all priests had to exclude parishioners from the sacraments if they did not pay the “diezmo” [the tithe of 10% of parishioners’ wealth] with money. Lamy did not want to accept payments in kind -that is, in goods [chickens, eggs, etc]. Lamy imposed such a policy because he wanted to raise capital in order to build a Cathedral. He needed dollars to operate the Catholic church. The former colonial institution - the Catholic church - began to adjust to the new mode of production. To add insult to injury, Lamy wanted the architecture of the cathedral to resemble churches from the east coast and not the adobe-like constructions of the southwest. [That is why you see the look of the Santa Fe Cathedral today.]

The Franciscan regulars refused to follow the bishops’ orders. To the Franciscans Lamy was an outsider who worked hand in hand with a foreign power that had conquered the place. To the Franciscans and many Catholic parishioners, Lamy was a foreigner doing within the Catholic Church what the US government was doing elsewhere: changing everything. [Discussion of Father Martinez in class]

Lamy, of course, needs to be understood in his socio-historical context. He knew that Catholics were a minority in the United States. New Mexico had become a territory of the United States. Moreover, there was a strong anti-Catholic movement within the United States. So, he wanted the New Mexican Catholic Church to accommodate, and to make changes that will make it more acceptable to the dominant Protestant population of the country. He was looking at New Mexico from the standpoint of the whole country. The Franciscans were interacting the Archbishop on the basis of their community parishioners’ interests and traditions.

Archbishop Lamy began removing Franciscan priests from churches if they questioned his authority. They had to obey, period. That was his approach. Rebellious priests were excommunicated.

By 1879 the Catholic hierarchy condemned the Penitentes and declared that their practices produced illnesses and deaths. The Church established that Penitentes should not be allowed to recruit young people. The document asserted that that the first priority of a Catholic was “obedience to the church.” The following year Archbishop Jean Salpointe decreed the excommunication of all the Penitentes of New Mexico. In other words, that Brotherhood of rural peoples, connected to the acequia system and to the extended families of the region, the Catholic Church no longer considered them Catholics. The Catholic priests that rejected the ruling were excommunicated as well. The Jesuits who had come to New Mexico supported the Franciscans. They too were expelled from New Mexico by the bishop of Santa Fe. The Penitentes could not have masses in their moradas - the people’s churches that had been built during the entire Spanish and Mexican periods.

Yet, from the 1880s to the 1920s, the Penitente organization survived and increased in influence. Why? Because, as the rapid commercial revolution expanded throughout the rural areas of New Mexico the only two institutions that could try to deal with it were the acequia organization and the Penitentes. In a sense they were one and the same. And the extended families were part of it - the male members of the family, that is. As the communities experienced land loss, isolation from the traditions of the Catholic church, as they experience a sense of threat and dread because of the advancing money economy and Protestantism - the Penitentes responded. They fought against the economic modernization under way. In rural communities doing penance, witnessing their religion though pain became even more widespread. The opposite of what the Catholic hierarchy hoped for.

Presbyterian missionaries moved into northern New Mexico and began to convert Penitentes into their religious denomination. They were told that the way they practiced religion was acceptable to the Presbyterian Church. Thus, the Protestant Reformation began to enter New Mexico and recruit its members among the most traditional of people. The penitents continued to provide social support, community services, provide food for the elderly, organized religious processions and activities.

Meanwhile the Catholic Church from the 1850s to the 1890s built 45 new churches; parochial schools were begun and even a Catholic college opened. Churches were not made of adobe. The architectural style departed from the southwest look. Pitched roofs and corrugated iron became widespread, imported from the east. The French priests claimed that the Nuevo Mejicanos danced too much, gambled too much and drank too much. The new missionaries were more flexibl

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what does this represnet


1868 Protestant Episcopal

1877 Mormons

1885 Congregational, same year the first Jewish Temple.

1890 Salvation Army

1892 African Methodist

1893 Disciples of Christ

1894 Eastern Orthodox

1895 Seventh Day Adventists

1896 Christian Reformed

1900 Church of Christ

1904 Pentecostals

1908 Lutheran

1909 Church of Nazarene

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the dates the religions were created

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what happened in 1929

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In 1929 the Santuario de Chimayó, which had been held and maintained for many generations by a community of believers, was sold to the Catholic Church. Donating was not an option.