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239 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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sociology
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the systematic study of human society
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global perspective
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the study of the larger world and our society's place in it
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high-income countries
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nations with very productive economic systems in which most people have relatively high incomes
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middle-income countries
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naions with moderately productive economic systems in which people's incomes are about the global average
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low-income countries
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nations with less productive economic systems in which most people are poor
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positivism
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a way of understanding based on science
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theory
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a statement of how and why specific facts are related
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theoretical paradigm
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a basic image of society that guides thinking and research
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structural-function paradign
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a framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability
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social structure
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any relatively stable pattern of social behavior
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social functions
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the consequences of any social pattern for the operation of society as a whole
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manifest functions
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the recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern
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latent functions
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the unrecognized and unintended consequences of any social pattern
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social dysfunction
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any social pattern that may disrupt the operation of society
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social-conflict paradigm
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a framework for building theory that sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and change
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macro-level orientation
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a broad focus on social structures that shape society as a whole
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micro-level orientation
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a close-up focus on social interaction in specific situations
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symbolic-interaction paradign
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a framework for building theory that sees society as teh product of the everyday interactions of individuals
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stereotype
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an exaggerated description aplied to every person in some category
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science
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a logical system that bases knowledge on direct, systematic observation
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scientific sociology
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the study of society based on systematice observation of social behavior
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empirical evidence
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information we can verify with our senses
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concept
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a mental construct that represents some part of the world in a simplified form
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variable
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a concept whose value changes from case to case
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measurement
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a procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case
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operationalize a variable
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specifying exactly what one is to measure before assigning a value to a variable
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reliability
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conssency in measurement
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validity
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actually measureing eactly what on intends to measure
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cause and effect
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a relationship in which cahnge in one variable causes change in another
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independent variable
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a variable that causes change in another (dependent) variable
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dependent variable
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a variable that is changed by another (independent) vairable
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correlation
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a relationship in which two or more variables change together
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spurious correlation
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an apparent, altough false, relationship between two or more variables caused by some other variable
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control
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holding constant all variables except one in order to see clearly the effect of that variable
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objectivity
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personal neutrality in conducting research
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replication
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repetition of research by other investigators
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interpretive sociology
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the study of society that focuses on teh meanings poeople attach to their social world
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critical sociology
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the study of society that focuses on the need for social change
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gender
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the ersonal traits and social positions that members of a society attch to being female or male
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research method
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a systematic plan for conducting research
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experiment
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a research method for investigating cause and effect under highly controlled conditions
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hypothesis
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an unverified statement of a relationship between variables
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Hawthoren effects
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a change in a subject's behavior cuased simply by the awareness of being studied
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survey
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a research method in which subjects respond to a series of statements or questions in a questionnaire or an interview
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population
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the peole who are the focus of research
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sample
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a part of a population that represents the whole
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questionnaire
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a series of written qustions a researcher presents to subjects
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interview
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a series of questions a researcher administers in person to respondents
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participant observation
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a reseach method in which investigators systematically observe peole while joinig them in thier routine activities
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participant observation
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a research method in which investigators systematically observe people while joining them in their routine activities
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secondary analysis
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a research mehod in which a researcher uses data collected by others
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inductive logical thought
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reasoning that reansforms specific observations into general theory
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deductive logical thought
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reasoning hat transforms general theory into specific hypotheses suitable for testing
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culture
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the values, beliefs, behavior, and material objects that together form a people's way of life
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nonmaterial culture
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the intangible world of ideas created y members of a society
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material culture
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the tangible things created by members of a society
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culture shock
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personal disorientation when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life
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symbols
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anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by eople who share a culture
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language
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a system of symbols hat allows people to communicate with one another
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cultural transmission
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the process by which one generation passes culture to teth next
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Sapie-Whorf thesis
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the thesis that people perceive the world through the culture lens of language
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values
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culturally defined standards by which people assess desirablity, goodness, and beauty and that serve as broad guidelines for social living
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beliefs
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specific statements that people hold to be true
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norms
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rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its member
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mores
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norms that are widely observed and have great moral significance
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flokways
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norms for routine or casual interaction
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social control
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attempts by society to regulate people's thought and behavior
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technology
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knowledge that people use to make a way of life in their surroundings
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high culture
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cultural patterns hat distinguish a society's elite
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popular culture
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cultural patterns that are widespread among a society's population
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subculture
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cultural patterns that set apart soem segments of a society's population
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multiculturalism
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an educational program recognizing the cultural diversity of the Uunited States and promoting the equality of all cultural traditions
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Eurocentrism
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the dominance of European cultural patterns
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Afrocentrism
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the dominance of African cultural patterns
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counterculture
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cultural patterns hat strongly oppose those widely accepted within a society
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cultural integration
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the close relationships among various elements of a cultural system
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cultural lag
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the fact that some cultural elements change more quickly thatn tohers disruppting a cultural system
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ethnocentrism
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the practice of judging another culture by the standands of one's own culture
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cultural relativism
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the practice of evaluating a culture by its own standards
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cultural universals
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traits that are part of every known culture
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sociobiology
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a theoretical paradigm that explores ways in which human biology affects how we create culture
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participant observation
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a research method in which investigators systematically observe people while joining them in their routine activities
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secondary analysis
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a research mehod in which a researcher uses data collected by others
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inductive logical thought
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reasoning that reansforms specific observations into general theory
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deductive logical thought
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reasoning hat transforms general theory into specific hypotheses suitable for testing
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culture
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the values, beliefs, behavior, and material objects that together form a people's way of life
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nonmaterial culture
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the intangible world of ideas created y members of a society
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material culture
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the tangible things created by members of a society
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culture shock
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personal disorientation when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life
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symbols
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anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by eople who share a culture
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language
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a system of symbols hat allows people to communicate with one another
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cultural transmission
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the process by which one generation passes culture to teth next
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Sapie-Whorf thesis
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the thesis that people perceive the world through the culture lens of language
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values
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culturally defined standards by which people assess desirablity, goodness, and beauty and that serve as broad guidelines for social living
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beliefs
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specific statements that people hold to be true
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norms
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rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its member
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mores
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norms that are widely observed and have great moral significance
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foldways
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norms for routine or casual interaction
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social control
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attempts by society to regulate people's thought and behavior
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technology
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knowledge that people use to make a way of life in their surroundings
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high culture
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cultural patterns that distinguish a society's elite
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popular culture
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culural patterns hat are widespread among a society's population
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subculture
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cultural patterns that set apart some segment of a society's population
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muliculturalism
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an educational prgram recognizing the cultural diversity of the United States and prmotoing the equality of all cultural traditions
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Eurocentrism
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the dominance of European cultural patterns
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Afrocentrism
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the dominance of African cultural pattens
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Counterculture
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cultural patterns that strongly oppose those widelly accepted within a society
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cultural integration
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the close relationships among various elements of a cultural system
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cultural lag
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the fact that soe cultural elemets change more quickly thatn others, disrupting a cultural system
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ethnocentrism
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the practice of judging another culture by the standards of one's own culture
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cultural relativism
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the practice of evaluating a culture by its own standards
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cultural universals
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traits that are part of every known culture
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sociobiology
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a theoretical paradigm that explores ways in which human biology affects how we create culture
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society
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people who interact in a defined territory and share a culture
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sociocultural evolution
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lenski's term for teh changes that occur as a society acquires new technology
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hunting and gathering
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the use of simple tolls to hunt animals and gather vegetation
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horticulture
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the use of hand tools to raise crops
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pastoralism
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the doestication of animals
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agriculture
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large-scale cultivation using plows harnessed to animals or more powerful energy sources
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industrialism
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the production of goods using advanced sources of energy to drive large machinery
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postindustrialism
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technology that supports an information-based economy
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social conflict
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the struggle between segments of society over valued resources
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capitalists
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people who own and operate factories and other businesses in pursuit of profits
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proletarians
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people who sell their productive labor for wages
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social institutions
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the major spheres of social life, or societal subsystems, organized to meet human needs
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false consciousness
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marx's term for explanations of social problems as the shortcomings of individuals rather than as teh flaws of society
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class conflict
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conflict between entire classes over teh distribution of a society's wealth and power
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class consciousness
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marx's term for workers recognition of themselves as a class unified in opposition to capitalists and ultimately to capitalism itself
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alienation
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the experience of isolation and misery resulting from powerlessness
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ideal type
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an abstract statement of the essential characteristics of any social phenomenon
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tradition
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sentiments and beliefs passed from generationt o generattion
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rationality
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a way of thinking that emphasizes deliberate, mattter-of-fact calculation of the most efficient means to accompish a particular task
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rationalization of society
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webers term for the historical change from tradition to reationality as teh dominant mode of human thought
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anomie
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durkheims designation of a condition in which society provides litle moreal guidance to individuals
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mechanical solidarity
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durkheims term for social bonds, based on common sentiments and shared moreal vaules, that are strong among members of preindustrial societites
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organis solidarity
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durkheim's terms for social bonds, boased on specialization and interdependence, that are strong among members of industrial societies
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division of labor
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specialized economic activity
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socialization
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the lifelong social experience by which individuals develop their human potential and learn culture
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personality
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a persons fairly consistnt patterns of acting, thinking, and feeling
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id
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freud's erm for the human being's basic drives
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ego
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freuds term for a persons conscious efforts to balance and innate pleasure-seeking drivers with the demands of society
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superego
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freuds term for teh cultural values adn norm internalized by an individual
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sensorimotor stage
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piagets term for teh level of human development at which individuals experience the world only through their senses
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preoperational stage
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piagets term for teh level of human development at whuch individuals first use language and other symbols
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concrete operational stage
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piagets term for the level of human developmeent at which individuals first perceive casual connections in their surroundings
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formal operational stage
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piagets term for teh level of human development at which individuals think abstractly and critically
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self
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george herbert meads term for that part of an individuals personality composed of self-awareness and self-image
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looking-glass self
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cooley's term for a self-imae based on how we think others see us
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generalized other
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george herbert meads term for widesread cultural norms and values we use as a reference in evaluationg ourselves
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peer group
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a social group whose members have inerests, social position, and age in common
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anticipatory socialization
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learning that helps a person achieve a desired position
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mass media
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impersonal commuications aimed at a vast audience
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cohort
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a category of people with a common characteristic, usually their age
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total institution
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a setting in which people are isolated from teh rest of society and maniulated by an administrative staff
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resocialization
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radically changing an inmate's personality by carefully controlling the environment
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social interaction
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the process by which people act and react in relation to others
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status
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a social position that a person occupies
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status set
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all the statuses a person holds at a given time
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ascribed status
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a social position a person receives at birth or assumes involuntarily later in life
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achieved status
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a social position a person assumes voluntarily that reflects personal ability and effort
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master status
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a status that a society defines as having special importance for social identity, often shaping a persons entire life
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role
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behavior expected of someone who holds a particular status
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role set
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a number roles attaced to a single status
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role conflict
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conflict among the roles correcsponding to two or more statuses
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role strain
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tension among the roles connected to a single statues
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social construction of reality
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the process by which people creatively shape reality through social interaction
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Thomas theorem
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W.I. Thomas's assertion that situations that are defined as real are real in their consequences
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ethnomethodology
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harold garfinkel's term for the study of the way people make sense of their everyday surroundings
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dramaturgical analysis
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erving goffman;s termm for teh study of social interaction in terms of theatrical performance
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presentation of self
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erving goffman's term for a person's efforts to create specific impresions in teh inds of others
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nonverbal communicaion
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communication using body movements, gestures, and facial expressions rather than speech
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personal space
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the surrounding area over which a person makes some claim to privacy
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social group
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two or more people who identify and interact with one another
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primary group
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a small social group whose members share personal and enduring relationships
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secondary group
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a large and impersonal social groups whose members pursue a specific goal or activity
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instrumental leadership
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group leadership that emphasizes the completion of taks
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expressive leadership
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group leadership that focuses on collective well-being
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groupthink
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the tendency of group members to conform, resulting in a narrow view of some issue
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reference group
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a social group that serves as a point of reference in making evaluations and decisions
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in-group
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a social group commanding a member's esteem and loyalty
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out-group
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a social group toward which one feels competition or oppistion
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dyad
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a social group with two members
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triad
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a social group with three members
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network
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a web of weak social ties
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formal organization
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a large secondary group organized to achieve its goals efficiently
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bureaucratic ritualism
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a preoccupation with rules and regulations to the point of thwarting an organization's goal
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bureaucratic inertia
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the tendency of bureaucratic organizations to perpetuate themselves
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oligarchy
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the rule of the many by the few
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scientific management
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frederick taylors term for the application of scientific principles to teh operation of a business or other large organization
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deviance
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the recognized violation of cultural norms
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crime
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the violation of a society's formally enacted criminal law
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social control
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attempts by society to regulate people's thought and behavior
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criminal justice system
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a formal response by police, courts, and prison officials to alleged violations of teh law
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labeling theory
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the assertion that deviance and conformity result not so much from what people do as from how others respnd to those actions
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stigma
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a powerfully negative label that greatly changes a persons self-concept and social identity
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medicalization of deviance
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the transormation of moral and legal deviance into a medical condition
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white-collar crime
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crime committed by people of high social position in teh course of their occupations
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corporate crime
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the illegal actions of a corporation or people acting on its behalf
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organized crime
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a business supplying illegal goods or service
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hate crime
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a criminal act against a person or a persons property by an offender motivated by racial or other bias
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crimes against the person
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crimes that direct violence or teh threat of violence against others
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crimes against property
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crimes that involve theft of property belonging to others
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victimless crimes
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violations of law in which there are no readily appparent victims
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plea bargaining
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a legal negotiation in which a rosecutor reduces a charge in exchange for a defendants guilty plea
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retribution
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an act of moral vengeance by which society inflicts on the offender suffering comparable to that caused by the offense
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deterrence
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the attempt to discourage criminality through punishment
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rehabilitation
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a program for reforming the offender to prevent subsequent offenses
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societal protection
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a means by which society renders an offender incapable of further offenses temporarily through incarceration or permanently by execution
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criminal recidivism
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subsequent offenses by people previously convicted of crimes
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community-based corrections
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correctional programs located within society at large rather than behind prison walls
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sex
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the biological distinction between females and males
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primary sex characteristics
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the genitals, organs used for reproduction
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secondary sex characteristics
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bodily development, apart from the genitals, that distinguishes biologically mature females and males
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intersexual people (hermaphrodites)
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people whose anatomy (including genitals) includes both female and male characteristics
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transsexuals
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people who feel they are one sex even though biologically they are the other
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incest taboo
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a norm forbidding sexual relations or marriage between certain relatives
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sexual orientation
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a persons romantic and emotional attraction to another person
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heterosexuality
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sexual attraction to someone of the other sex
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homosexuality
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sexual attraction to someone of the same sex
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bisexuality
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sexual attraction to people of both sexes
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asexuality
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no sexual attraction to people of either sex
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homophobia
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the dread of close personal interation with people thought to be gay, lesbian, or bisexual
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pornography
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sexually explicit material that causes sexual arousal
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prostitution
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the selling of sexual services
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queer theory
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a growing body of research findings that challenges teh heterosexual bias in U.S. society
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heterosexism
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a view stigmatizing anyone who is not heterosexual as "queer"
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abortion
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the deliberate termination of a pregnancy
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social stratification
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a system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierachy
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social mobility
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a change in ones position in the social hierarchy
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caste system
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social stratification based on ascription or birth
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class system
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social stratification based on both birth and individual achievement
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meritocracy
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social stratification based on personal merit
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status consistency
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the degree of consistency in a persons social standing across various dimensions of social inequality
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structural social mobility
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a shift in the social position of large numbers of people due more to changes in society itself than to individual efforts
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ideology
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cultural beliefs that justify particular social arrangements, including patterns of ineuality
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Davis-Moore thesis
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the assertion that social stratification is a universal pattern because it has beneficial consequences for the operation of a society
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blue-collar occupations
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lower-prestige work that involves mostly manual labor
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white-collar occupations
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higher-prestige work that involves mostly mental activity
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socioeconomic status
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a composite ranking based on various dimensions of social inequality
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