Sociology

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conflict theory

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a theoretical perspective that emphasizes the role of power and coercion in producing social order

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content analysis

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the analysis of meanings in cultural artifacts like books, songs, and other forms of cultural communication

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controlled experiment

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a method of collecting data that can determine whether something actually causes something else

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correlation

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a statistical technique that analyzes patterns of association between pairs of sociological variables

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data

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the systematic information that sociologists use to investigate research questions

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data analysis

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the process by which sociologists organize collected data to discover what patterns and uniformities are revealed

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debunking

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the process of looking behind the facades of everyday life

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deductive reasoning

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insight wherein specific influences are derived from general principles

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dependent variable

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the variable that is a presumed effect

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diversity

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the variety of group experiences that result from the social structure of society

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empirical

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refers to something that is based on careful and systematic observation

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Enlightenment

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the period in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Europe characterized by faith in the ability of human reason to solve society's problems

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evaluation research

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research assessing the effect of policies and programs

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exchange theory

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theory arguing behavior is determined by the rewards or punishments people receive as they interact with others

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feminist theory

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analysis of women and men in society intended to improve women's lives

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functionalism

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a theoretical perspective that interprets each part of society in terms of how it contributes to the stability of the whole society

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generalization

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the ability to make claims that a finding represents something greater than the specific observations on which the finding is based

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hypothesis

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a statement about what one expects to find in research

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independent variable

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a variable that is the presumed cause of a particular result

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indicator

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something that points to or reflects an abstract concept

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inductive reasoning

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insight wherein it arrives at general conclusions from specific observations

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issues

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problems that affect large numbers of people and have their origins in the institutional arrangements and history of a society

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mean

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the sum of a set of values divided by the number of cases from which the values are obtained; an average

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median

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the midpoint in a series of values that are arranged in numerical order

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mode

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the value (or score) that appears most frequently in a set of data

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organic metaphor

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refers to the similarity early sociologists saw between society and other organic systems

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participant observation

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a method whereby the sociologist becomes both a participant in the group being studied and a scientific observer of the group

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percentage

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parts per hundred

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population

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a relatively large collection of people (or other unit) that a researcher studies and about which generalizations are made

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positivism

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a system of thought that regards scientific observation to be the highest form of knowledge

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postmodernism

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a theoretical perspective based on the idea that communication in all its forms is reality, such that understanding society requires studying all forms of communication, including cultural ideas, languages, texts, and self-conceptions

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qualitative research

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research that is somewhat less structured than quantitative research but that allows more depth of interpretation and nuance in what people say and do

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quantitative research

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research that uses numberical analysis

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random sample

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a sample that gives everyone in the population an equal chance of being selected

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rate

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parts per some number

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rational choice theory

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theory positing that choices human beings make are guided by logical reason

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reliability

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the likelihood that a particular measure would produce the same results if the measure were repeated

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replication study

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research that is repeated exactly, but on a different group of people at a different point in time

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sample

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any subset of units from a population that a researcher studies

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scientific method

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the steps in a research process, including observation, hypothesis testing, analysis of data, and generalization

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social change

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the alteration of social interaction, social institutions, stratification systems, and elements of culture over time

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social Darwinism

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the idea that society evolves to allow the survival of the fittest

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social facts

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social patterns that are external to individuals

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social institution

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an established and organized system of social behavior with a recognized purpose

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social interaction

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behavior between two or more people that is given meaning

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social structure

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the patterns of social relationships and social institutions that comprise society

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sociological imagination

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the ability to see the societal patterns that influence individual and group life

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sociology

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the study of human behavior in society

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symbolic interaction theory

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a theoretical perspective claiming that people act toward things because of the meaning things have for them

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troubles

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privately felt problems that come from events or feelings in one individual's life

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validity

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the degree to which an indicator accurately measures or reflects a concept

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variable

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something that can have more than one value or score

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verstehen

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the process of understanding social behavior from the point of view of those engaged in it

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beliefs

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shared ideas held collectively by people within a given culture

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counterculture

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subculture created as a reaction against the values of the dominant culture

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cultural capital

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(also known as social capital) cultural resources that are socially designated as being worthy (such as knowledge of elite culture) and that give advantages to groups possessing such capital

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cultural diffusion

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the transmission of cultural elements from one society or cultural group to another

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cultural hegemony

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the pervasive and excessive influence of one culture throughout society

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cultural relativism

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the idea that something can be understood and judged only in relationship to the cultural context in which it appears

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culture

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the complex system of meaning and behavior that defines the way of life for a given group or society

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culture shock

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the feeling of disorientation that can come when one encounters a new or rapidly changed cultural situation

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dominant culture

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the culture of the most powerful group in society

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ethnocentrism

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the belief that one's in-group is superior to all out-groups

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ethnomethodology

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a technique for studying human interaction by deliberately disrupting social norms and observing how individuals attempt to restore normalcy

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folkways

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the general standards of behavior adhered to by a group

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global culture

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the diffusion of a single culture throughout the world

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hypothesis

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a statement about what one expects to find in research

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language

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a set of symbols and rules that, when put together in a meaningful way, provides a complex communication system

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laws

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the written set of guidelines that define what is right and wrong in society

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mass media

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channels of communication that are available to very wide segments of the population

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material culture

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consists of the objects created in a given society - its buildings, art, tools, toys, print and broadcast media, and other tangible objects

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mores

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strict norms that control moral and ethical behavior

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nonmaterial culture

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includes the norms, laws, customs, ideas, and beliefs of a group of people

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norms

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the specific cultural expectations for how to act in a given situation

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popular culture

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the beliefs, practices, and objects that are part of everyday traditions

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reflection hypothesis

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the idea that the mass media reflect the values of the general population

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Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

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a theory that language determines other aspects of culture since language provides the categories through which social reality is defined and perceived

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social capital

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same as cultural capital

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social sanctions

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mechanisms of social control that enforce norms

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subculture

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the culture of groups whose values and norms of behavior are somewhat different from those of the dominant culture

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symbols

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things or behavior to which people give meaning

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taboo

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the strictest norms in society - those behaviors that bring the most serious sanctions

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values

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the abstract standards in a society or group that define ideal principles

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adult socialization

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the process of learning new roles and expectations in adult life

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age cohort

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an aggregate group of people born during the same time period

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age discrimination

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different and unequal treatment of people based solely on their age

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age prejudice

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a negative attitude about an age group that is generalized to all people in that group

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age stereotype

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preconceived judgements about what different age groups are like

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age stratification

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the hierarchial ranking of age groups in society

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ageism

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the institutionalized practice of age prejudice and discrimination

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anticipatory socialization

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the process of learning the expectations associated with a role one expects to enter in the future

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disengagement theory

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theory predicting that as people age, they gradually withdraw from participation in society and are simultaneously relieved of responsibilities

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ego

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the part of the self representing reason and common sense

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game stage

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the stage in childhood when children become capable of taking a multitude of roles at the same time

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generalized other

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an abstract composite of social roles and social expectations

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id

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the part of the personality that includes various impulses and drives, including sexual passions and desires, biological urges, and human instincts

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identity

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how one defines oneself

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imitation stage

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the stage in childhood when children copy the behavior of those around them

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life course

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the connection between people's personal attributes, the roles they occupy, the life events they experience, and the social and historical context of these events

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looking glass self

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the idea that people's conception of self arises through reflection about their relationship to others

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peers

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those of similar status

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play stage

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the stage in childhood when children begin to take on the roles of significant people in their environment

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psychoanalytic theory

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a theory of socialization positing that the unconscious mind shapes human behavior

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resocialization

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the process by which existing social roles are radically altered or replaced

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rite of passage

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ceremony or ritual that symbolizes the passage of an individual from one role to another

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role

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the expected behavior associated with a given status in society

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self

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what we imagine we are; it is not an interior bundle of drives, instincts, and motives

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significant others

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those with whom we have a close affiliation

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social control

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the process by which groups and individuals within those groups are brought into conformity with dominant social exceptions

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social learning theory

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a theory of socialization positing that the formation of identity is a learned response to social stimuli

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socialization

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the process through which people learn the expectations of society

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socialization agents

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those who pass on social expectations

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superego

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the dimension of the self representing the cultural standards of society

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taking the role of the other

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the process of imagining oneself from the point of view of another