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75 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Direct Knowledge
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Experience & Observation
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Empirical Social Research
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Specific, Qualifies assertions, Based on Empirical Data, Reliable and Valid
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Theory
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A systematic explanation for the observations that relate to a particular aspect of life.
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Inductive
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Observing something specific and particular data you are developing turns into broader theories. Generates Hypothesis,
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Deductive
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From general to particular: Theoretically expected pattern and then observes to test if pattern. Tests hypothesis
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Variable
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A value that comes with several attributes.
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Attributes
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Characteristics the variables
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Independent Variable
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Its value is independent (unaffected/manipulated by the experimenter) by the value of the Dependent variable.
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Dependent Variable
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Its value is depended (effected) on the value of the Independent variable
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Qualitative Data
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Non-numerical, descriptive information
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Quantitative Data
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Numerical information. Easy to manipulate, summarize, compare and analyze.
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Two Models of Reasoning
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Inductive & Deductive
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Indirect knowledge can be_____.
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Biased.
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5 Basic Ethical Principles Remember:
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1) Voluntary Participation
2) Avoid Harm to Participants 3) Avoid Deception (unless justified by the REB) 4) Ensure Privacy/Protect Identity 5) Consider Vulnerable Populations |
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Examples of Unethical Conduct:
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Scientific Misconduct
Plagiarism Research Fraud (Faking data) |
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Confidential
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Knowing the identity of the individual but keeping the person's connection to the data confidential.
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Anonymity
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Not knowing the individuals you are researching.
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3 Main Purposes of Research
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1) Exploration
2) Description 3) Explanation |
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What are Units of Analysis?
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Whatever it is that a researcher describes or explains and then draws inferences about
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3 Common Units of Analysis & explain:
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1) Individuals=often characterized re social groupings
2) Groups= When we study the characteristics that belong to a group. 3) Organizations= Mainly a type of group: social artefacts, books, buildings, weddings etc. |
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Ecological Fallacy means:
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Mix-up of analysis and our unit of observation. Assuming that something learned about an ecological unit (ie: group) says something about the individual that make up the unit.
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3 Types of Longitudinal Studies
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1) Trend Study
2) Cohort Study 3) Panel Study |
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Trend Study
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A type of longitudinal study that examines changes within a population over an extended period of time: successive census
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Cohort Study
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A type of longitudinal study that examines specific subpopulations as they change over time
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Panel Study
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A type of longitudinal study that examines specific individuals over an extended period of time.
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Steps in a Research process
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Determine the problem & define the question to answer
Define population Identify concepts (variables) Find general background about your problem/question. Collect, read, evaluate and write what you have learned. Cite the information you have found so that others will be able to follow your research trail. Get a Research Question |
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A concept is:
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An abstract element representing classes of phenomena (ie: learning concepts through socialization-obedience we learn while growing up)
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Conceptualization is:
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The process of coming to an agreement about what concepts mean and represent.
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Operationalization is:
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The stage of when we decide how we will measure the concepts within the study (i.e.: GPA to measure intelligence)
Process of specifying the operation that will indicate the value of cases on a variable |
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Indicators are:
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A sign of the presence or absence of the studied variable. Defining indicators often leads to controversy/disagreement.
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Multiple Indicators are:
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Using various measures of the same concept on the same subjects, to ensure that when the concept is present, it is identified and properly classified.
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2 Effective Ways of Using Multiple Indicators are:
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Indexes: constructed by accumulating scores assigned to individual attributes.
Scales: Assign scores to patterns of responses. |
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3 Kinds of Definitions Used in Defining Concepts Are:
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1) Real Definition: reification (concepts aren't real-ie: love)
2) Nominal Definition: Specifies how a concept will be understood/defined for the research (ie: for the purpose of this research, intelligence is defined as the score of the GPA). 3) Operational Definition: Specifies how a concept will be measured for the purpose of one's research (ie: for the purpose of this study, trust will be seen as whether you leave your wallet unattended). |
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Process of Researching Concepts:
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Conceptualization--Nominal Definition--Operational Definition--Measurement in the Real World
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2 Kinds of Operationalization
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1) Range of variation (interested in extremes)
2) Precision (distinction between attributes composing a variable) |
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Define Reliability:
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Whether a particular measurement yields the same results when applied repeatedly to the same object/person.
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Define Validity:
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The extent to which an empirical measure adequately reflects the agreed-upon meaning of the concept under consideration. Are you measuring what you intend to measure?
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Define Face Validity:
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Face validity is concerned with how a measure or procedure appears.
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Deduction vs. Induction
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Deduction - theories are confirmed by general observation
Induction - general observation yields specific theories |
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Types of Measurement
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nominal
ordinal interval ratio |
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Sampling Designs
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Simple Random Sampling
Systematic Stratified Cluster Non-probability |
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debriefing
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Interviewing subjects to learn about their experience of participation in the project and to inform them of any unrevealed purpose.
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informed consent
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A norm in which subjects base their voluntary participation in research projects on a full understanding of the possible risks involved.
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cross-sectional study
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A study based on observations representing a single point in time.
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longitudinal study
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A study design involving data collected at different points in time, as contrasted with a cross-sectional study.
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panel study
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A type of longitudinal study, in which data are collected from the same set of people (the sample or panel) at several points in time.
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Indicators
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represent a way of measuring real instances of an action, orientation, or characteristic referred to by a concept
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Nominal Level
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(Categorical)
(Unranked Categories) objects of study (or cases) are assigned to a category based on possessing a particular attribute. Numbers are assigned to each category. i.e. 1. Male 2. Female; 1. Single 2. Married 3. Divorced 4. Widowed |
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Ordinal Level
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(Categorical)
(Ranked Categories) objects of study are assigned to categories that are ranked in terms of the degree to which objects possess the attribute being measured. Numbers are assigned to each category to reflect the rand order of the categories. i.e. Social Class 1. Upper 2. Middle 3. Lower; Age 1. 18-30 2. 31-49 3. 50-64 4. 65+; 1. Strongly Disagree 2. Disagree.... |
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Interval Level
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(Quantitative)
objects of study are assigned numbers that not only rank them in terms of the degree to which thtye possess the attribute of the variable being measured, but also measure the absolute difference between them. 0 ╪ 0 i.e. Temp. 0° ╪ no temperature |
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Ratio Level
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(Quantitative)
objects of study are assigned numbers that not only rank them in terms of the degree to which they possess the attribute of the variable being measured, but also measure the absolute difference between them. 0 = 0 i.e. Annual Income, number of violent crimes committed, number of times you drank a beer |
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What is snowball sample?
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A method of sampling in which sample elements are selected as successive informants or interviewees identify them. (Chain of referrals)
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Types of Research Designs
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Cross Section Studies
Longitudinal Studies (Trend, Cohort, Panel) |
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Types of study
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Exploratory, descriptive, explanatory, and evaluation study
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Exploratory study
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Exploratory research: Seeks to open new areas of inquiry, especially by understanding what meanings people give to situations.
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Descriptive research
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Research in which social phenomena are
defined and described. |
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Explanatory research
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Seeks to identify causes and effects of social phenomena and to predict how one phenomenon will change or vary in response to variation in another phenomenon.
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Evaluation Research
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Research that describes or identifies the impact of social policies and programs.
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Pure Research
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Basic Research (majority) - Knowledge for knowledge's sake
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Applied Research
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For Specific practical use
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What is scientific explanation?
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Refer to scientific law or prior discovery
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What is measurement?
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The process of describing the unit of analysis in terms of the attributes composing a variable.
The process of assigning numbers of labels (attributes)nto unit of analysis to describe its properties. |
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What do we mean when we say response options are mutually exclusive and exhaustive?
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Mutually exclusive: A variable’s attributes (or values) are mutually exclusive when every case can be classified as having only one attribute (or value).
Exhaustive: Every case can be classified as having at least one attribute (or value) for the variable. |
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Sampling Frame
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A list of or other units containing the elements in a population
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Population
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The entire set of individuals to which the study findings are to be generalized
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What are the differences between probability and nonprobability samples?
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Probability sampling method: A sampling method that relies on a random, or chance, selection method so that the probability of selection of population elements is known.
Nonprobability sampling methods: Sampling methods in which the probability of selection of population elements is unknown. |
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Simple random sampling
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A method of sampling in which every
sample element is selected purely on the basis of chance through a random process. |
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Random sampling
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A method of sampling that relies on a random, or
chance, selection method so that every element of the sampling frame has a known probability of being selected. |
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Stratified random sampling
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A method of sampling in which
sample elements are selected separately from population strata that the researcher identifies in advance. |
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Cluster sampling
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Sampling in which elements are selected in two or more stages, with the first stage being the random selection of naturally occurring clusters and the last stage being the random selection of elements within clusters.
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Systematic random sampling
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A method of sampling in which sample elements are selected from a list or from sequential files, with every nth element being selected after the first element is selected randomly.
(may produce error) |
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Availability sampling
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Sampling in which elements are selected on the basis of convenience.
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Purposive sampling
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A non probability sampling method in which elements are selected for a purpose, usually because of their unique position.
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Quota sampling
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A non probability sampling method in which elements are selected to ensure that the sample represents certain characteristics in proportion to their prevalence in the population.
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Snowball sample
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A method of sampling which elements are selected as successive informants or interviewees identify them (chain of referrals).
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