Social Psychology Exam 2

Front 1

Introspection

Back 1

The process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings and motives (pg 122)

Front 2

self-perception theory

Back 2

the theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behaviors and the situation in which it occurs (129)

Front 3

impression management

Back 3

The attempt by people to get others to see them as they want to be seen - John F. Kennedy presented himself as a healthy man ready to face any challenge when in fact he was very sick and took lots of meds for much of his presidency (142)

Front 4

ingratiation

Back 4

The process whereby people flatter, praise, and generally try to make themselves likeable to another person, often of higher status (142) - sucking up, can backfire if the person realizes you are being insincere

Front 5

impact bias

Back 5

The tendency to overestimate the intensity and duration of our emotional reactions to future negative events - people overestimate how dreadful they will feel following a romantic breakup or losing a job

Front 6

self-persuasion

Back 6

A long lasting form of attitude change that results from attempts at self-justification. Lasts longer than regular persuasion because it is internal and not from external pressures. - A mild threat not to play with a toy left children trying to believe that playing with it would be undesirable. (165)

Front 7

the Ben Franklin Effect

Back 7

When asked to do a favor for someone, you convince yourself afterward that you like them / they are attractive / you have good feelings about them. (167-168)

Front 8

empathy

Back 8

The ability to put oneself in the shoes of another person and to experience events and emotions (joy and sadness) the way that person experiences them (328)

Front 9

empathy-altruism

Back 9

The idea that when we feel empathy for a person, we will attempt to help that person purely for altruistic reasons, regardless of what we have to gain.

Front 10

Eros & Thanatos

Back 10

Freud's two ideas: Eros = the instinct toward life, posited by Freud & Thanatos = an instinctual drive toward death, leading to aggressive actions

Front 11

Schacter and Singer's 2-Factor Theory of Emotion

Back 11

1. physiological arousal (run / heart pound) 2. cognitive label (I'm afraid / danger) --> fear (emotion)

Front 12

Attribution of source (example)

Back 12

Look at that car! I must be in love.

Front 13

Physiological state (example)

Back 13

My heart is pounding

Front 14

Social comparison theory

Back 14

People want accurate feedback about their abilities and attitude and prefer object, non-social standards.

Front 15

Social comparison targets (lateral, downward, upward)

Back 15

Lateral - target doing about the same (most informative, self-evaluation), Downward - doing worse (self-enhancement), Upward - doing better (people are good at selectively choosing targets to meet)

Front 16

Students studying to be accountants and lawyers were given articles about the achievements of exceptional teachers and accountants. What was their reaction?

Back 16

Because it was relevant to them, the articles were more likely to provoke inspiration and positive self-evaluations.

Front 17

Upward comparisons were most effective if....

Back 17

Social comparison target is similar, relevant and attainable.

Front 18

Self-presentation

Back 18

People are biased to see themselves in a favorable light

Front 19

Self-handicapping

Back 19

Behaviors designed to create obstacles and excuses for themselves so if they do poorly on something, they can avoid self blame. (Drinking before an exam, purposefully not studying, sick the next day)

Front 20

Self-handicapping Bias

Back 20

Avoid painful attribution for failure by creating or taking advantage of ambiguity / uncertainty. Protects ego and makes us feel better.

Front 21

Example of a self-handicapping bias

Back 21

"It wasn't that I didn't study...it was the noise in the room / distractions"

Front 22

Why not self-handicap when something is easy?

Back 22

Because success is expected

Front 23

Why self-handicap when something is unsolvable?

Back 23

Because future success is uncertain

Front 24

Discounting

Back 24

Eliminate the internal cause if external causes are available (creates an external and unstable attribution)

Front 25

Augmentation

Back 25

Succeed despite the odds (make an internal attribution)

Front 26

The Spotlight Effect

Back 26

We overestimate the extent to which we're in the public eye / people think about our appearance

Front 27

Self-regulation

Back 27

controlling the self takes effort, it is a limited resource

Front 28

Examples of self-regulation

Back 28

Dieters eat more after failure on a problem-solving test compared to after success or non-dieters who fail. Participants are more likely to be aggressive against a peer who insults them after a self-regulation task.

Front 29

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Back 29

Discrepancies between attitudes and behavior can produce psychological discomfort in the form of an aversive arousal. If the person cannot change the behavior, the attitude will often be changed to come in line with the behavior in order to reduce dissonance.

Front 30

3 Necessary Components of Cognitive Dissonance

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1. Feeling of Personal Responsibility (negative consequences were freely chosen) 2. Physiological arousal 3. Attribution of arousal to own behavior

Front 31

Ways to reduce dissonance

Back 31

Change your attitude, change your perception of the behavior (I hardly ate any chocolate), minimize the importance of the conflict, reduce perceived choice (I had no choice), change behavior

Front 32

3 types of cognitive dissonance

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1. Justifying attitude 2. Justifying effort 3. Justifying difficult decisions

Front 33

People were told to tell friends how much fun an experiment was. Why did the people paid $1 have a bigger attitude change about the experiment than the people paid $20?

Back 33

The people paid $1 had an INTERNAL JUSTIFICATION (they had an attitude change). Those who were paid $20 had an EXTERNAL JUSTIFICATION (minimal attitude change because of the reward).

Front 34

Justifying effort

Back 34

The tendency to increase liking for something we worked hard to attain (being embarrassed in a hazing ritual to join a fraternity)

Front 35

Postdecisional dissonance

Back 35

Dissonance aroused after making a decision, reduced by enhancing how much you like the chosen option and devaluing the options you rejected. "Spreading of the Alternatives"

Front 36

Counteradditudinal Advocacy

Back 36

Stating an opinion or attitude that runs counter to one's private attitude, belief, or behavior

Front 37

For behavior change to work, the people must:

Back 37

publicly advocate the desired behaviors, be induced to think about their own failures to show these behaviors in the past

Front 38

Prosocial behavior

Back 38

any act performed with the goal of benefitting another person

Front 39

Altruism

Back 39

motive / desire to help another person even if it involves a cost (or at least no benefit to the helper)

Front 40

Evolutionary psychology

Back 40

we frequently choose the option that would prolong the lifespan of someone / our species

Front 41

Kin selection

Back 41

behaviors that help a genetic relative are favored (saving twin before mother)

Front 42

Why do we help non-kin? The idea of reciprocity

Back 42

Why do we help non-kin? The idea of reciprocity

Front 43

Social-responsibility norm

Back 43

We should help those who are dependent on us

Front 44

Norm of justice

Back 44

we should help those who deserve help

Front 45

Social Learning Theory

Back 45

Helping is learned through observation and reinforcement, children learn to help by being rewarded, but as people mature, reinforcements become less necessary.

Front 46

Social Exchange Theory

Back 46

maximize rewards, minimize costs. People will help when the rewards are high relative to the costs

Front 47

Social Rewards

Back 47

social approval, feeling good about yourself, increasing likelihood of being helped in the future

Front 48

Social Costs

Back 48

physical danger, time, embarassment, guilt

Front 49

Social Rewards

Back 49

social approval, feeling good about yourself, increasing likelihood of being helped in the future

Front 50

Women are more likely to give _______, _____ help

Back 50

long term, nurturing help

Front 51

Men are more likely to help __ _________, especially when there is an audience, potential danger to them, or a woman who needs help.

Back 51

help in emergencies

Front 52

Religiosity

Back 52

Religious people are only slightly more likely to help. They are more likely to provide planned help like volunteering and charity.

Front 53

Mood

Back 53

good moods can lead to helpful behavior

Front 54

Good moods make us

Back 54

increase our self-awareness and see the good in people (positive thoughts  positive behavior)

Front 55

Negative-State Relief Hypothesis

Back 55

People help to alleviate their own bad mood by helping others

Front 56

Guilt

Back 56

Feelings of gulit tend increase the likelihood of helping. (The people that broke their camera were more likely to help others)

Front 57

Urban Overload Hypothesis

Back 57

People living in cities are constantly overwhelmed with stimulation, so they keep to themselves.

Front 58

The ____ bystanders who witness an emergency the ____ likely one of them will help

Back 58

The more bystanders who witness an emergency the less likely one of them will help

Front 59

Step 1: Noticing the Event. Smoke Filled Room Study?

Back 59

One person alone in a room noticed the smoke and reacted to it very quickly. In a room filled with people when someone notices the smoke, they don't respond for a long time because they expect someone else to first.

Front 60

Step 2?

Back 60

Interpreting the Event as an emergency

Front 61

What prevents step 2?

Back 61

Being uncertain that it is an emergency (ambiguity), pluralistic ignorance

Front 62

Pluralistic Ignorance

Back 62

The state in which people mistakenly believe that their own thoughts and feelings are different than those of others, even though everyone's behavior is the same.

Front 63

Step 3?

Back 63

Assume responsibility

Front 64

Diffusion of Responsibility

Back 64

Each bystander's sense of responsibility to help decreases as the number of bystanders increases. As people are alone, they tend to feel more responsible.

Front 65

Step 4?

Back 65

Decide how to help

Front 66

Step 5

Back 66

Must actually provide help

Front 67

Audience Inhibition

Back 67

Fear that others will evaluate them negatively if they intervene and the situation is not an emergency or if they do not do something correctly

Front 68

Ways to increase the likelihood that bystanders will intervene

Back 68

reduce uncertainty (ambiguity), increase responsibility, increase self-awareness, give specific instructions, teach others about the bystander effect

Front 69

Aggression

Back 69

Any form of intentional behavior aimed at doing harm to another person (who is motivated to avoid such treatment)

Front 70

Key ways to recognize aggression

Back 70

Intentional behavior, aimed at another person, victim wants to avoid harm

Front 71

Aggression is not just _____

Back 71

Aggression is not just violence

Front 72

Types of aggression

Back 72

Hostile, instrumental, relational

Front 73

Hostile aggression

Back 73

The harm inflicted is an end in itself (punching someone in a fight)

Front 74

Instrumental aggression

Back 74

The harm inflicted is a means to some other end (muggings, football -- have another reason for fighting)

Front 75

Relational

Back 75

Manipulates (excluding someone from a group)

Front 76

Women tend to be

Back 76

more relationally / covertly aggressive

Front 77

Men tend to be

Back 77

more physically / overtly aggressive

Front 78

Instinct Theory (Freud)

Back 78

Thanatos - instinctual drive toward death, resulting in aggressive behavior, and energy must be turned into something useful / positive

Front 79

Hydraulic theory

Back 79

Unexpressed emotions build up and are explosive

Front 80

Evolutionary Theory

Back 80

Aggression to environmental cues evolved over evolutionary time because aggression has helped our ancestors survive

Front 81

Neural biological factors of aggression

Back 81

Amygdala stimulation related to aggression

Front 82

Aggression related to hormones

Back 82

Higher levels of testosterone leads to more aggression. Less serotonin also leads to more aggression

Front 83

Why does alcohol lead to aggression?

Back 83

Lowered inhibitions, more primitive brain structures (reduced cerebral cortex activity, increased midbrain activity -- fight or flight activity)

Front 84

Social Learning Theory of Aggression

Back 84

We learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

Front 85

A child who watches their aggressive parents behavior...

Back 85

Has an increased chance of remembering the behavior and being aggressive when they are older.

Front 86

Who / What do we learn from? Society / Culture, Parents, Media

Back 86

Society / Culture - gang initiation and cultures of violence Parents - physically punitive parents tend to have physically aggressive children Media - Exposure to violent TV / video games increases aggressiveness

Front 87

Frustration

Back 87

Perception that you're being prevented from attaining a goal

Front 88

Frustration - Aggression

Back 88

Frustration increases the probability of an aggressive response

Front 89

Frustration --> anger --> ?

Back 89

Aggression (or ready to become aggressive)

Front 90

Aversive Situations example, how does pain affect participants?

Back 90

Hand in lukewarm or cold water; participants in cold water were more irritable and more likely to be aggressive.

Front 91

Aversive Situations example, how does heat affect participants?

Back 91

More violent crimes committed in summer months, riots likely to occur on hot days, and participants in a hot room are more likely to report feelings that are aggressive / hostile on questionnaires.

Front 92

Excitation Transfer Theory

Back 92

Arousal created by one stimulus can be misattributed to a second stimulus. Arousal from exercise, violent movies, a frightening situation etc., can be attributed to emotions like anger which can lead to aggression.

Front 93

Aggressive cues / stimuli

Back 93

The presence of objects associated with aggression (guns etc) can increase the probability of aggression

Front 94

Weapons Effect

Back 94

Priming of hostile thoughts, memories, scripts (children who played with toy guns were more likely to knock down another child's blocks)

Front 95

Experience with weapons influences aggressive thoughts

Back 95

Pictures of hunting guns are more likely to prime aggressive thoughts among nonhunters, whereas pictures of assault guns were more likely to prime aggressive thoughts among hunters. Men who belong to a shooting association are less aggressive, angry and impulsive than men who do not belong to one.

Front 96

Factors of aggression

Back 96

Aggressive thoughts (scripts), negative affect / mood, hostile attributions

Front 97

Aggression comes from

Back 97

biological factors, learned factors, personal factors and situational factors

Front 98

Catharsis

Back 98

The idea that observing or engaging in aggression relieves pent-up aggressive tendencies, and thus makes one less likely to aggress in the future

Front 99

Examples of catharsis

Back 99

Hitting pillows, breaking dishes etc.

Front 100

During the exit interview of Ebbeson's study of workers who were either laid off or voluntarily left their job...

Back 100

Those who vented about their supervisor were angrier and more aggressive.

Front 101

Bushman's research (angered patients who either hit a punching bag or sat quietly)

Back 101

He PREDICTED that venting patients were less aggressive, however he was wrong; those who hit the punching bag were more aggressive.

Front 102

Why doesn't catharsis work? (3 reasons)

Back 102

Watching violence on TV or acting aggressively "teaches" us how to aggress (social learning theory). Observing aggression increases arousal and hence the likelihood to behave aggressively. If aggressing feels good, that reward makes it more likely the aggression will reoccur in the future.

Front 103

Meta-analysis

Back 103

Presents a picture of the overall pattern of results across studies. All of the meta-anaylses done support the hypothesis that exposure to violent TV and video games increase the risk of later aggressive / antisocial behavior.

Front 104

Violent TV watching predicts later ______, but ________ does not predict later ________.

Back 104

Violent TV watching predicts later aggression, but aggression does not predict later violent TV watching.

Front 105

Why does violent media increase aggression? Short term

Back 105

Short term (limited exposure to violence): imitation (learning), weakens inhibitions, increases arousal, priming (increasing style of thoughts / scripts)

Front 106

Why does violent media increase aggression? Long term

Back 106

Expectations (more likely to view someone's behavior as aggressive), scripts (how to act aggressively in situations, learn to handle conflict with aggressive behaviors), attitudes / beliefs (seeing or engaging in aggression makes it seem more acceptable), and desensitization (we are less likely to engage / disagree with aggression because so many others are doing it)