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104 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Social Psychology
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the scientific study of how an individual's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by other people
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Hindsight Bias
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The belief that "you knew it all along”
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Fundamental Attribution Error
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People often find it difficult to see the role that powerful situations can play producing their own and other's behavior, so they overemphasize the importance of personal distributions in producing behavior
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Schema
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Primary tool people use for understanding social situations and physical stimuli
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Stereotypes
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Various schemas we have on people
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Automatic Processing
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Unconscious behavior
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Controlled Processing
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Conscious behavior
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Evolutionary Perspective
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Practices and understandings that are universal and seem to be indispensable to social life
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Language
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Appears at the same age of development in all cultures
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Theory of mind
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Develops early in all normal people of all cultures
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Parental investment
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Differences in males and females could be explained by the differential parental investments required of the sexes
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Social Cognition
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The study of how people think of themselves and their social world
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Automaticity
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Low-effort thinking
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Cognitive misers
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People who don't want to spend more effort than we need to
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Schemas
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Mental representations of various objects or categories
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Hypothesis
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Prediction of what will happen under circumstance
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Theory
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Body of related propositions intended to describe some aspect of the world
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Archival Research
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Research done using studies done previously
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Surveys
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Research done by asking people questions
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Participation Observation
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Observing phenomenon at close range
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Correlational Research
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Psychologists determine whether a relationship exists between two or more variables
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Experimental Research
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Enables investigators to make strong inferences about how different situations affect people's behavior
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Third Variable
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Variable that exerts casual influence on both variable 1 and variable 2
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Self-Selection
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When a participant selects their level on each variable bringing with this value unknown properties that make casual interpretation of a relationship difficult
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Independent Variable
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Variable that the scientist manipulates
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Dependent Variable
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Outcome that is measured after manipulation of the independent variable
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Random Assignment
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Ensures that participants are as likely to be assigned to one condition as they are to another
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Control Condition
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Comparable to the experimental condition in every way except producing the expected effect on the dependent variable
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Natural Experiment
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Events occur that the investigator believes to have casual implications for some outcome
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External Validity
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Indication of how well the results of a study generalize to contexts besides the study itself
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Field Experiment
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One of the best ways to ensure external validity, observing people in a natural setting
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Internal Validity
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Confidence that only the manipulated variable could have produced the results
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Debriefing
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Asking participants directly id they understand the instructions of the experiment and if they have any questions before it begins
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Reliability
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The degree to which the particular way researchers measure a given variable is likely to yield constant results
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Measurement Validity
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The correlation between some measure and some outcome the measurement is supposed to predict
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Regression to the mean
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The tendency of extreme scores on a variable to be associated with less extreme scores
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Statistical Significance
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A measure of the probability a given result could have occurred by chance
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Basic Science
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Science or research concerned with trying to understand some phenomenon in its own right, with a view toward using that understanding to build valid theories about the nature of some aspect of the world
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Applied Science
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Science or research with solving important, real world problems
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Intervention
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An effort to change a person's behavior
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Replication
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Reproducing of the results of a scientific study
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Institutional Review Board
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A university committee that examines research proposals and makes judgements about the ethical appropriateness of the research
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Informed Consent
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A person's signed agreement on a procedure of research study after learning all the aspects
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Deception Research
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Research in which the participants are misled about the purpose of the research or the meaning of something done to them
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Perseverance Effect
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Holding onto false belief, even after being shown that the beliefs are false
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Confirmation bias
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Seeing what you want to see
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Self-fulfilling prophesy
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Expectations become reality
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Pygmalion Effect
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Phenomenon where higher expectations lead to an increase in performance
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Availability Heuristic
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Basing a judgment with examples that easily come to mind
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Representativeness Heuristic
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Categorizing objects by how well they seem to represent their category
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Pluralistic Ignorance
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When people are reluctant to express their misgivings about a perceived group norm; their reluctance in turn reinforces the false norm
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Primacy Effect
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When the first information is more influential because it affects the interpretation of subsequent information
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Recency Effect
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When information presented last is more influential because it is more available in memory
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Framing Effect
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Order effects (primary and recency)
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Temporal Framing Effect
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Far-off events are construed in more abstract terms while imminent events are construed more concretely
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Confirmation Bias
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Leads to people believing things that aren't true because evidence can be generally found to support even the most questionable propositions
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Priming effect
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Being exposed to certain stimuli makes other thoughts more readably accessible
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Intuitive System
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Based on rapid, associative processes
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Rational System
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Based on slower, rule-based reasoning
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Heuristics
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Mental shortcuts that provide people with sound judgements most of the time, but can also lead to errors
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Fluency
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Sense that people experience when processing information that can lead to judgements they make about it. Disfluent stimuli can lead to more reflective thought
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Illusory Conditions
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Caused by availability and representativeness heuristics working together
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Self-presentation
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The process of constructing and presenting the self in order to shape others' impressions and achieve ultimate goals
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Ingratiation
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Presenting yourself as likable
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Self-promotion
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Presenting yourself as competent
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Exemplification
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Presenting yourself as moral
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Modesty
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Downplaying your strengths
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Intimidation
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Presenting yourself as threating
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Supplication
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Presenting yourself as weak
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Sandbagging
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Strategically hiding your competence
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Person Reception
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Process by which we come to know about other people's temporary states and enduring dispositions
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Impression formation
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Rapid assessment of salient characteristic into an overall judgement
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Summation model
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Valances are added up
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Averaging model
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Valances are averaged
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Anderson
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Support for averaging model
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Information integration theory
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Personal dispositions of perceiver
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Central Traits
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Traits that are more important than others
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Pessimistic Style
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Attributing good outcomes to external, unstable, and local causes, and bad outcomes to internal, stable, and global causes, is associated with poor health, poor performance and depression
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Covariation Principle
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Involved in making attributions
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Discounting Principle
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If situational constraints could plausibly have caused an observed behavior, people discount the role of the person's disposition
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Augmentation Principle
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If strong forces were present that would typically inhibit the behavior, they assume the actor's dispositions were particularly powerful
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Counterfactual Thoughts
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People often perform mental situations, adding or subtracting elements about the person or situation and estimating the likely effect on the outcome, then using these simulations to guide their attributions
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Self-Serving Attribution
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People's attributions are not always fully rational. They sometimes attribute events to causes that flatter themselves beyond what the evidence calls for
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Just World Hypothesis
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Thinking good and bad people get what they deserve
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Actor-Observer Differences
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Actors tend to attribute their behavior much more to situations than observers do, partly because actors can usually see the situations they confront better than observers can
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Attribution Theory
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Supposes that one attempts to understand the behavior of others by attributing feelings, beliefs, and intentions to them
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Brewer and Treyen’s Study
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Study that found participants only remembering schema-related things in an office and recalling schema-related things that were not present
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Causation
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Correlation does not equal
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Correlational Research
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Quantitative research involving two variables
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Counterfactual Thinking
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Involves the human tendency to create possible alternatives to life events that have already occurred; something that is contrary to what actually happened.
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Medevec Et Al Study
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Study that found that bronze medalists are happier than silver medalists because the counterfactual outcome for bronze medalists was less than the result compared to the opposite for silver medalists
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Dweck Et Al Study
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Study that found when students were expected to do better they do better
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Emotional Amplification
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The emotional distress of a negative event occurring due to another factor that may have been within one’s control
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Experimental Research
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collection of research designs which use manipulation and controlled testing to understand causal processes
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Explanatory Style
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psychological attribute that indicates how people explain to themselves why they experience an event, either positive or negative.
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John Bargh
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Psychologist credited with the discovery of the effects of priming
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Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory
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One’s behavior is related to both one’s personal characteristics and to the social situation in which one finds oneself
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Naturalistic Fallacy
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it would be fallacious to explain that which is good reductively in terms of natural properties such as "pleasant" or "desirable"
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Perpetual Salience
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We tend to over-estimate the causal role (salience) of information we have available to us.
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Perseverance Effect
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psychological phenomenon in which people hold on tightly to their beliefs regardless of convincing evidence that proves they are incorrect
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Snyder and Swann’s Interview Study
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Told female college students that they would meet a person who was either introverted (reserved, cool) or extroverted (outgoing, warm). They were then asked to prepare a set of questions for the person they were going to meet.
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Tordorov Et Al Study
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Judged trustworthiness based on facial appearance
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Bottom-Up Processing
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an approach wherein there is a progression from the individual elements to the whole
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Top-Down Processing
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cognitive process that initiates with our thoughts, which flow down to lower-level functions, such as the senses
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