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90 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Misattribution
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- Mistakenly attributing a behavior to the wrong
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Sexual Behavior Example of misattribution
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- men more likely than women to attribute a woman's friendliness to mild sexual interest
- such mis attributions explain the greater sexual assertiveness exhibited by men across the world ... and greater justification world wide for the implien consent argument |
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Shocking statistic linked to misattribution theory and sexual relations
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- 23% of American who say they have been forced in unwanted sexual behavior is eight times more than the 3% of American men who say they have ever forced women into a sexual act
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Attribution Theory
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theory of how people explain behaviors
internal disposition (traits, motives and attitudes) external situations |
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Major Point in Considering Social Beliefs and Judgements
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We respond not to reality as it is but to reality as we construe it.
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Major Overarching point
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We respond not to reality as it is but as we construe it
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Priming
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- activiating particular associations in memory
- our memory is a web of associations, priming is the awakening or activating of certain associations |
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Priming Experiment: exposure to words "old", "wise", "retired"
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- slow walking to elevator
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Priming :: depressed mood =
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negative associations
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Major take home lesson
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Much of our social infomation processing is automatic
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Our frist impressions are...
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generally more right than wrong...
- we understand people -dispositions and feelings- better with intimacy |
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Preceiving and Interpreting Events: When social information is subject to multiple interpretations....
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preconceptions matter
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People's perceptions of bias can be used to...
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assess their attitudes
- tell me where you see bias, and you will signal your attitudes |
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Kulechov Effect
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- control pereception of emotion by manipuating context
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Spontaneous Trait Inference
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- associate traits we talk about with us
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Belief Preserverance
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- persistence of one's initial conceptions, as when the basis for one's belie is discredited but an explaination of why the belief might be true
- beliefs can grow their own legs |
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Belief Preservance :: Experiment (implant a belief than discredit)
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- falsehood proclaimed to be true + anecdotal evidence + asked to explain why falsehood is true
- INformation then was completely discredited by explaining it was actually the opposite was true - even after discrediting the evidence of why i was the falsehood was true belief was still preserved |
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The more we explain why our theories might be true ...
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- the more closed we become to challenges
(The problem of resolution through advaserial rhetoric) |
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Our beliefs and expectations powerfully affect how...
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we construct events
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Remedies for belief preserverance
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- explain the opposite
- explaning any opposite alternative outcome establishes a tendency towards podering various other positions |
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We construct memories at the time of ...
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withdrawal
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Memories are affected by our...
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current feelings and expectations
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Misinformation effect
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- Loftus (misleading information influencing memory)
-incorporating "misinformation" into one's memory of the event, after witnessing an event and receiving misleading information about it |
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Wixon and Laird
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"The speed, magnitude, and certainty" (with which particpants revised their own histories) "was striking"
g. Valliant "maturation makes liars out of us all" |
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We are not totally unable to recall how we feel
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- just when memories are hazy current feelings guide our recall
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When attitudes change ...
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- it is often not recognized by the holder of the position
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Reconstructing our past memories
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- can reconstuct past behavior
- past hisories - if one sees significant improvement in self = degrade the self of the past (reconstruction from a bias perspective of personal growth) |
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Take this home : CONSTRUCITNG MEMORIES OF OURSELVES AND OUR WORLDS
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- We all selectively notice, interpret, and recall events in ways that sustain our ideas. Our social judgements are a mix of observations and expectation, reason and passion
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cognitive psy (how people represent, preceive, represent and remember events) + social psych (how people interact with each other on a daily basis)
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- how we form judgements
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proof that unconscious is working in behavior
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priming studies
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Bargh and Chartrand on the unconscious and everyday life
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- Most person's everyday life is determined not by their conscious control ...mental process put into motion by environment and unconscious awareness and guidance
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Power of Intuition
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Blaise Pascal "the heart has its reasons which reason does not know"
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Controlled Processing vs Automatic processing
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- explicit thinking (deliberate, reflective, and conscious)
vs - implicit thinking (effortless, habitual, and without awareness sorta equals what we call intution ) |
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Examples of Automatic thinking
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- schemas - templates that guide our perceptions and interpreations
- emotional reactions - expertise = automatic awareness and functioning in specialized area |
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If intuition is immediately knowing something without reasoned analysis then perceiving is ....
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intuition par excellence
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many routine cognitive functions occur
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- automatically, unintentionally, without awareness
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Limits of Intuition
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Illusory thinking (overconfidence phenomenon and confirmation bias)
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Overconfidence Phenomenon
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- tendency to be more confident than correct - overestimate the accuracy of ones beliefs
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Impotence feeds
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Overconfidence
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Another example of the limit of intuition :: overconfidence phenomenon
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- contributes to the planning fallacy
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Confirmation Bias
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A tendency to search for information that confirms one's preoccupation
- rather than attempting to disconfirm bias we search for evidence to confirm our bias - play a supportive role in belief preserverance |
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limits of intuition :: overconfidence :: Remedies
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- prompt and specific feedback
- unpack a task (planning fallacy) - argue your own position (search for disconfiming evidence) |
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Realistic Confidence is ...
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Adaptive; but checks keep us from making errors in our beliefs of others and our environment
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Heuristic
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-a thinking strategy
- enables quick and efficient judgements (OUR COGNITIVE SYSTEM IS FAST AND FRUGAL) |
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Two major heuristics
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Representativeness and Availibitlity
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The tendency to presume sometimes despite contrary odds, that someone or something belongs to a particular group if resembling (representing) a typical member
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Representativeness Heuristic
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Experiment: Representativeness Heuristic
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- demonstrated to fallacies in thinking one... not considering the base rate odds while operating on limited information
second:: assuming a conjunction of traits are more probable than a single trait if the secondary trait is in line with a typical group member |
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Availability Heuristic
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- judging the likelihood of things based on their availability in memory
- if something comes readily to mind we likely we presume it common place - vivid images, easy to picture symptoms draws to the assumption the are more commonplace than objective truth |
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Heuristics are ....
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naive statistical intuitions
- not driven by good reason; affected thinking (availability) |
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Counterfactual Thinking
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- imaging alternative scenarios and outcomes that might have happened, but didn't
- underlies our feelings of luck - more significant the event the more intense the counterfactual thinking |
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Judging our social worlds ::: illusory thinking :: illusory correlation
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perception of relationship where none exists, or perception of a stronger relat. than actually exists
- associating random events - using the illusory correlation to strengthen belief (a method of confirmation bias) |
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illusory thinking :: Illusion of Control
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- the idea that chance events are subject to our influence
(gamblers) |
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Regression towards the average
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- the statistical tendency for extreme scores or extreme behavior to return toward one's average
- self improvement (if at your lowest point it is highly unlikely to remain their ....explains the reason why therapy and control conditions may not yield satisfying data) |
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Conclusions from Tversky and kahemans research
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- illusion of control dominates over regression effect
- nature operates in such a way that we often feel punished for rewarding others and rewarded for punishing them |
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Social judgement
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- efficient (though fallible) information processing
- infused with our moods |
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social judgements :: Unhappy people
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- tend to be more self focused and brooding
- a depressed mood motivates intense thinking - searching for info. that makes one's environment more understandable and controllable |
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happy mood vs unhappy mood
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world seems friendlier vs. world seems to sour
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Moods color judgements
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we don't attribute our changing perceptions to our changing moods
moods may inhibit our higher cognitive functions (angry more likely to act on a bias without attempting to garner evidence from environ) |
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Dispositional Att
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- att behav to the person's disposition and traits
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Situational Att
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- attributing behav to the environ
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spontaneous trait inference
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an effortless, automatic inference of trait after exposure to someone's behav.
1/10th of a second exposure to someone's face people will spontaneously infer some personality traits |
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theory of correspondent inferences
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normal or expected behavior tells us less about the person than does unusual behav.
ease in which we infer traits |
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Commonsense Att
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HAROLD KELLY!!!!!!!!!!!
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Harold Kelly Theory of Atts
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consistency (does this person usually behave this way in this situation?) / distinctiveness (does this person behave differently in this situation )/ consensus (do others behave similarly in this situation?)
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Harold Kelly ::: external att
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high distinctiveness / high consensus
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Harold Kelly :: internal att
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low distinctiveness; low consensus
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H Kelly
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- discount contributing cause to behavior if plausible internal clause is already found
- we often ignore or discount alternative possibilities :: underestimating the frequency of the name Bush in American culture because of its distinctiveness = pres BuSh) |
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The common problem with our atts....
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- underestimate the impact of the situation
- overestimate the extent to which it reflects the individual's traits and attitudes |
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the tendency for observers to underestimate situational influ. and overestimate dispositional influ. upon others' behavior
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Correspondence Bias = Fundamental Att Error
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2nd degree fundamental att error in work
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- you like someone ... you treat them favorably...
- they treat you back with similar favor... - you make an dispositional att - OTHERS ARE THE WAY THEY ACT |
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who is impacted by fundamental att error
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- everyone
- social and intelligent people effected |
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Fun Att error : why not ourselves?
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- we act we observe the environment
- we see others act we see only them |
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fun att error :: cam perspective bias
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- camera perspect influencing people's guilt judgement
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perspectives change with time
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- once you are removed from the person more likely external cause
(how can this be used to manufacture favorable dispositions in to keep sailient those attributions ) |
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self awareness
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- a self conscious state in which attention focuses on oneself
- it makes people more sensitive to their own attitudes and dispositions |
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How to make one self conscious
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look into the mirror, hearing tape recorded voice, having pictures taken, filling out biographical information
- self conscious instead of situation conscious |
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when the attention is focused on ourselves we often....
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take responsibility
(internal attribution) |
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in experimental conditions in which participants are made more self aware / self conscious ....non self conscious people act like self conscious people ...why
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they act like self conscious people in that they view themselves as as observers typically do
attribute behavior to more internal factors and less to the situation |
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All experiments point to a reason for att. error:
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WE FIND CAUSES WHERE WE LOOK FOR THEM
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Although we see our behav as more variable ....
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we see other peoples behav as lees influences by the situation
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Cultural differences and attributional errors
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- learn to explain behavior differently
- collectivist more sensitive to situations - language encourages att. errors |
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Why it is the fundamental att. error...
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- because it colors our explanations in basic and important ways
- ex those you make dispositional traits will think poverty is self caused those who think situational att may take political stances that help poverty |
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illusory thinking is a byproduct of our...
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- minds strategies for simplifying complex information
- it parallels our perceptual mechanisms |
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Social judgements and beliefs guide how we feel and act which generate our reality
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When our ideals lead us in ways their apparent confirmation, they have become what sociologists termed self fulfilling prophecies
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Self fulfilling prophecies
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- A belief that leads to its own fulfillment
- experimenter bias |
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Rosenthal and Jacobonson Self fulfilling prophecy experiment
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- students labeled disadvantaged or advantaged were effected
- advantaged received favorable treatment (nods,smiles, more attention) |
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Do students beliefs of their teacher effect how well they do in class?
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yes, given negative information about instructors students were likely negatively evaluate teachers
students who were told favorable information about instructors better attention in class and better grades |
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self fulfilling prophecy :: interpersonal relationships
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we get what we expect because behavioral confirmations occur when we treat people in accord to our beliefs
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is idealizing your partner a good thing?
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- when someone love us we become the person they imagine us to be
- buffer conflict bolster satisfaction/ enhance physical traits |
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Behavioral Confirmations
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a type of self fulfilling prophecy particular to direct interpersonal interaction whereby peoples social expectations lead them to behave in ways that cause others to confirm their expectations
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