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104 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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attitude
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evaluation of an object in a positive or negative fashion that includes the three elements of affect, cognitions, and behavior
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affect
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emotional reactions to the object
- dislike/like something |
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cognitions
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knowledge about the object
- also, beliefs, ideas, memories, and images about the object - ex : fave sports team : know stats, but also remember team's exhilarating wins and heartbreaking losses |
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behaviors
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attitudes are associated w/ specific behaviors
-when attitudes are primed, we are most likely to act in ways consistent with the attitude |
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Likert scale
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a numerical scale used to assess people's attitudes that includes aa set of possible answers that has anchors on each extreme (1 = never, 7 = always, etc)
- not meant for complex questions though, such as "what is your attitude towards gay marriage" |
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response latency
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the time it takes an individual to respond to a stimulus such as an attitude question
- someone who takes less time to answer a question would presumably possess stronger attitudes in this realm than the individual who takes several seconds |
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two approaches for assessing attitude strength
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-response latency
-determine centrality of the attitude to the individual's belief system -- ex : to the extent that an attitude is really important to you, it should be highly correlated w/ your attitudes towards other similar issues |
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utilitarian function
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an attitudinal function that serves to alert us to rewarding objects and situations we should approach and costly or punishing objects or situations we should avoid
- ex : bitter food - evolutionary ex : we prefer lush landscapes that have water and sources of food, etc |
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ego-defensive function
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an attitudinal function that enables us to maintain cherished beliefs about ourselves by protecting us from awareness of our negative attributes and impulses or from facts that contradict our cherished beliefs or desires
- one type is terror management theory |
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terror management theory
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a theory that to ward off the anxiety we feel when contemplating our own demise, we cling to cultural world views and strongly held values out of a belief that by doing so part of us will survive death
- ex : adoption of religious beliefs, greater patriotism, greater inclination to punish moral transgressors, etc |
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two core values to political conservatism
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1. resistance to change
2. endorsement of inequality -more willing to accept the inequalities societies ring about in resources and opportunities apparently, these core values are attempts to manage fear and uncertainty |
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value-expressive function
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an attitudinal function whereby attitudes help us express our most cherished values - usually in groups in which they can be supported and reinforced
- through reference groups - children express early allegiance to a certain political party in part to express the values of a very important group - family |
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reference groups
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groups whose opinions matter to us and that affect our opinions and beliefs
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knowledge function
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an attitudinal function whereby attitudes help organize our understanding of the world, guiding how we attend to, store, and retrieve information
- so attitudes guide what we attend to and remember, making us more efficient, and more biased social perceivers of social situations - most typically, we pay attention to and recall what is consistent w/ our preexisting attitudes |
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two core values to political conservatism
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1. resistance to change
2. endorsement of inequality -more willing to accept the inequalities societies ring about in resources and opportunities apparently, these core values are attempts to manage fear and uncertainty |
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what four functions do attitudes serve?
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1. help us identify rewards and threats (utilitarian function)
2. help us avoid unpleasant realities about life and who we are (ego-defensive function) 3. part of why we belong to different groups (value-expressive function) 4. powerful guides to our construal of the social world (knowledge function) |
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value-expressive function
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an attitudinal function whereby attitudes help us express our most cherished values - usually in groups in which they can be supported and reinforced
- through reference groups - children express early allegiance to a certain political party in part to express the values of a very important group - family |
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reference groups
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groups whose opinions matter to us and that affect our opinions and beliefs
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knowledge function
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an attitudinal function whereby attitudes help organize our understanding of the world, guiding how we attend to, store, and retrieve information
- so attitudes guide what we attend to and remember, making us more efficient, and more biased social perceivers of social situations - most typically, we pay attention to and recall what is consistent w/ our preexisting attitudes |
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what four functions do attitudes serve?
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1. help us identify rewards and threats (utilitarian function)
2. help us avoid unpleasant realities about life and who we are (ego-defensive function) 3. part of why we belong to different groups (value-expressive function) 4. powerful guides to our construal of the social world (knowledge function) |
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heuristic-systematic model
Elaboration likelihood model |
a model of persuasion that maintains that there are two different routes of persuasion: the systematic route and the heuristic route
a model of persuasion that maintains that there are two different routes of persuasion: the central route and the peripheral route |
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central (systematic) route
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People think carefully and deliberately about the content of the message - elaborate thinking
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What are the three motivations that make the central route to persuasion more likely?
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1. issue is personally relevant
2. knowledgeable in domain 3. personally responsible |
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What are the three motivations that make the peripheral route to persuasion more likely?
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1. issue is not personally relevant
2. distracted or fatigued 3. incomplete or hard-to-comprehend message |
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peripheral (heuristic) route
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a persuasive route wherein ppl attend to relatively simple superficial cues relatated to the message, such as the length of the message or expertise or attractiveness of the communicator
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source characteristics
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characteristics of the person who delivers the message, including the person's attractiveness, credibility, and expertise
are independent of the actual content of the message can be powerful peripheral means for changing ppl's attitudes |
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sleeper effect
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an effect that occurs when messages from unreliable sources initially exert little influence but later cause individuals' attitudes to shift
like political ads that bash the other party but have little credibility : ppl will just ignore them at first and not rely on them, but as time goes on, it shows those ads actually do have an effect on how the ppl vote does not occur if the source was discounted BEFORE the message |
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message characteristics
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aspects of teh message itself, including the quality of the evidence and the explicitness of its conclusions
vivid information, embedded in a personal narrative w/ emotional appeal, can be more persuasive than statistical facts that are objectively more informative fear also helps |
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receiver characteristics
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characteristics of the person who receives the message, including age, mood, personality, and motivation to attend to the message
characteristics : --need for cognition (ppl who like to think deeply about things) --mood (does it match the mood of the receiver?) --age (younger ppl are more susceptible to persuasive messages than adults) |
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third-person effect
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assumption by most ppl that "other people" are more prone to being influenced by persuasive messages (such as those in media campaigns) than they themselves are
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agenda control
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efforts of the media to select certain events and topics to emphasize, thereby shaping which issues and events we think are important
media tends to shape our broader conceptions of social reality |
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thought polarization hypothesis
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the hypothesis that more extended thought about a particular issue tends to produce more extreme, entrenched attitudes
so the more time a person is given to think about their opinion, the stronger they become about the issue. |
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attitude inoculation
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small attacks on our beliefs that engage our attitudes, prior commitments, and knowledge structures, enabling us to counteract a subsequent larger attack and be resistant to persuasion
vaccination analogy |
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attribution theory
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an umbrella term used to describe the set of theoretical accounts of how people assign causes to the events around them and the effects that people's causal assessments have
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a lot of what we conclude about people based on their faces is determined almost __________.
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instantaneously
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causal attribution
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linking an instance of behavior to a cause, whether the behavior is our own or someone else's
it's how we explain both our own behavior and that of others ask someone on a date, and they say they have a cold. but you don't take it at face value, you think...does she really have a cold or am i getting brushed off? |
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explanatory style
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a person's habitual way of explaining events, typically assessed along three dimensions: internal / external, stable / unstable, and global / specific
internal/external : is it because of them or others? stable/unstable : will it be present again int eh future or not? global/specific : is it something that influences other areas of their lives or just this one? the tendency to make external, unstable, and specific attributions for failure presumably make s less prone to despair and encourages more of a "can do" outlook that promotes such healthier behaviors |
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covariation principle
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the idea that we should attribute behavior to potential causes that co-occur with the behavior
three types : consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency |
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consensus
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refers to what most people would do in a given situation - this is, whether most people would behave the same way or few or no other people would behave that way
all else being equal, the more an individual's reaction is shared by others (consensus is high), the less it says about that individual and the more it says about the situation |
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distinctiveness
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what an individual does in different situations - that is, whether the behavior is unique to a particular situation or occurs in all situations
the more someone's reaction is confined to a particular situation (distinctiveness is high), the less it says about that individual and the more it says about the specific situation. |
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consistency
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refers to what an individual does in a given stituation on different occassions - that is whether next time under the same circumstances, the person would behave the same or differently
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an external attribution is likely if the behavior is :
____ in consensus, _______ in distinctiveness, and _______ in consistency |
high for all three.
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an internal attribution is likely if the behavior is :
______ in consensus, _____ in distinctiveness, and _____ consistency |
low, low, high
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discounting principle
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the idea that we should assign reduced weight to a particular cause of behavior if there are other plausible causes that might have produced it
so, if someone says something under the threat of torture, you discount the internal cause (that the person is honestly confessing) because the external cause (threat of punishment) is sufficient to explain the behavior difficult to know what to conclude about someone who behaves "in role" |
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augmentation principle
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the idea that we should assign greater weight to a particular cause of behavior if there are other causes present that normally would produce the opposite outcome
so, if someone advocates a position despite being threatened with torture for doing so, we can safely conclude that the person truly believes in the position easy to figure out what to think about someone who acts "out of role" |
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counterfactual thoughts
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thoughts of what might have, could have, or should have happened "if only" something had been done differently
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emotional amplification
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a ratcheting up of an emotional reaction to an event that is proportional to how easy it is to imagine the event not happening
our emotional reaction to an event tends to be amplified if it almost did not happen "what might have been" effects the motional response olympics example: gold medalists and bronze medalists happiest |
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self-serving bias
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the tendency to attribute failure and other bad events to external circumstances, but to attribute success and other good events to oneself
usually strong when people's motivation to feel good about themselves is particularly high |
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fundamental attribution error
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the tendency to believe that a behavior is due to a person's disposition, even when there are situational forces present that are sufficient to explain the behavior
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just world hypothesis
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the belief that people get what they deserve in life and deserve what they get
it has been argued that children who have been sexually abused are likely to have been sex offenders themselves in a past life ppl tend to derogate the victim |
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In theory, we should simultaneously weigh both the person's _________ and the surrounding _________ to arrive at an explanation of a behavior.
In actuality, we first automatically characterize the person in terms of the _________ and then sometimes make an effortful adjustment for the _______ to arrive at an explanation of the behavior. |
behavior, context
behavior, context |
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actor-observer difference
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a difference in attribution based on who is making the causal assessment: the actor (who is relatively disposed to make situational attributions) or the observer (who is relatively disposed to make dispositional attributions)
husband may cite a late meeting or unusually heavy traffic to explain why an errand did not get done, whereas his wife may be more inclined to argue that he is lazy or inattentive |
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traits
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consistent ways that people think, feel, and act across classes of situations
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five-factor model
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five personality traits (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism) that psychologists believe are the basic building blocks of personality
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heritability
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the degree to which traits or physical characteristics are determined by genes and hence inherited from parents
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monozygotic (identical) twins
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twins who originate from a single fertilized egg that splits into two exact replicas that then develops into two genetically identical individual
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dizygotic (fraternal) twins
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twins who originate from two different eggs fertilized by different sperm cells; like ordinary siblings, they share an average half of their genes
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diversification
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a principle that maintains that siblings develop into quite different niches within the family environment
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distinctiveness hypothesis
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hypothesis that we identify what makes us unique in each particular context, and we highlight that in our self-definition
american children define themselves according to how they are unique and different from their classmates |
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social comparison theory
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the hypothesis that we compare ourselves to other people in order to evaluate our opinions, abilities, and internal states
downward social comparison : help us define ourselves rather favorably, giving a boost to our self-esteem upward social comparison - we are particularly inclined to do this when we wish to improve some component of our character or personality |
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The social self is shaped by what four processes?
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- Evolution (traits)
- Sibling dynamics (first borns more assertive, later-borns more radical) - Culture (western vs east asian where western emphasizes independence while eastern emphasizes connection to others) - broad construal processes (tendency to compare ourselves to others, etc) |
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personal beliefs
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beliefs about our own personality traits, abilities, attributes, preferences, tastes, and talents
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social self-beliefs
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beliefs about the roles, duties, and obligations we assume in groups
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relational self-beliefs
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beliefs about our identities in specific relationships
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collective self-beliefs
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our identity and beliefs as they relate to the social categories to which we belong
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self-reference effect
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the tendency to elaborate on and recall information that is integrated into our self-knowledge
such as the beliefs we have about ourselves involves specific regions of the frontal lobes when information is integrated into our self-knowledge, we remember it better : study with the 40 different trait adjectives. participants remembered the ten words that were about their personality or not better than the other 30 |
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self-schemas
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knowledge-based summaries of our feelings and actions and how we understand others' views about the self
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self-image bias
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the tendency to judge other people's personalities according to their similarity or dissimilarity to our own personality
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possible selves
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hypothetical selves we aspire to be in the future
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self-discrepancy theory
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a theory that appropriate behavior is motivated by cultural and moral standards regarding the ideal self and the ought self. Violations of those standards produce emotions such as guilt and shame.
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actual self
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the self we truly belief ourselves to be
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ideal self
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the self that embodies the wishes and aspirations we and other people maintain about us
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promotion focus
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a sensitivity to positive outcomes, approach-related behavior, and cheerful emotions that result if we are living up to our ideals and aspirations
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ought self
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the self that is concerned with the duties, obligations, and external demands we feel we are compelled to honor
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prevention focus
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a sensitivity to negative outcomes often motivated by a desire to live up to our ought self and to avoid the guilt or anxiety that results when we fail to live up to our sense of what we ought to do
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ego depletion
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a state produced by acts of self-control, where we don't have the energy or resources to engage in further acts of self-control
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Three illusions about the self that people who are well adjusted are more prone to :
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- unrealistically positive views about the self
- exaggerated perceptions of control - optimism these : 1. elevate positive mood and reduce negative mood 2. foster healthier social bonds by making people more altruistic and magnanimous, and 3. they promote goal-directed behavior |
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self esteem
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the positive or negative overall evaluation that we have of ourselves
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trait self-esteem
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the enduring level of confidence and regard that people have for their defining abilities and characteristics across time
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state self-esteem
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the dynamic, changeable self-evaluations that are experienced as momentary feelings about the self
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contingencies of self-worth
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an account of self-esteem maintaining that self-esteem is contingent on successes and failures in domains on which a person has based his or her self-worth
this is a model that psychologists Crocker and Wolfe came up with |
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self-complexity
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the tendency to define the self in terms of many domains and attributes
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sociometer hypothesis
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a hypothesis that maintains that self-esteem is an internal, subjective index or marker of the extent to which we are included or looked on favorably by others
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self-evaluation maintenance model
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a model that maintains that we are motivated to view ourselves in a favorable light and that we do so through two processes: reflection and social comparison
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reflection (part of the self-evaluation maintenance model)
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we flatter ourselves by association with others' accomplishments.
ex: our team won basking int he reflected glory |
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social comparison
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we flatter ourselves by strategically noting how our own performance compares favorable with that of others
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self-verification theory
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a theory that holds that we strive for stable, accurate beliefs about the self because such beliefs give us a sense of coherence
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identity cues
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customary facial expressions, posture, gait, clothes, haircuts, and body decorations, which signal to others important facets of our identity and, by implication, how we are to be treated and construed by others
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self esteem in asians __________ as a function of the degree of their exposure to north american culture
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increases
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self presentation
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presenting who we would like others to believe we are
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impression management
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attempting to control the beliefs other people have of us
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face
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who we want others to think we are
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public self-consciousness
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our awareness of what other people think about us - our public identity
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private self-consciousness
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our awareness of our interior lives - our private thoughts, feelings, and sensations
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self-monitoring
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the tendency for people to monitor their behavior in such a way that it fits the demands of the current situation
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self-handicapping
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the tendency to engage in self-defeating behaviors in order to prevent others from drawing unwanted attributions about the self as a result of poor performance
irrationally put too little effort into studying for a test - provide an explanation for possible failure in order to maintain the desired public self |
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on-record communication
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the statements we make that we intend to be taken literally
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off-record communication
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indirect and ambiguous communication that allows us to hint at ideas and meanings that are not explicit in the words we utter
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social facilitation
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initially a term for enhanced performance in the presence of others; now a broader term for the effect - positive or negative - of the presence of others on performance
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dominant response
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in a hierarchy of responses, the response you are most likely to make
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the presence of others increases arousal and facilitates dominant response tendencies. this ________ performance on easy or well-learned tasks, but _________ performance on difficult or novel tasks
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facilitates, hinders
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evaluation apprehension
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a concern about how we appear in the eyes of others - that is, about being evaluated
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distraction-conflict theory
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a theory based on the idea that being aware of another person's presence creates a conflict between attending to that person and attending to the task at hand and that is is this attentional conflict that is arousing and that produces social facilitation effects
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social loafing
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the tendency to exert less effort when working on a group task in which individual contributions cannot be monitored
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