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115 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Theory |
- explains with principles that organize observations and predict behaviour or events - simplifies |
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Hypotheses |
testable predictions |
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Operational Definition |
statement of procedures used to define research variables |
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Descriptive Methods |
- observe & record behaviour - do not manipulate - CONS: no control of variables and some cases may be misleading |
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Types of Descriptive Methods |
- case studies - surveys - naturalistic observation |
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Case Study |
in-depth analysis of specific individuals to reveal things true of all of us |
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Survey |
technique used to ascertain self-reported attitudes & behaviours of a group |
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Correlation |
- used to associate different factors - measure extent that two factors very together and predict each other |
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Experimental Methods |
- manipulate factors to discover effects - control variables w/ random assignment |
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Double Blind Procedure |
Research participants and researchers are blind to whether participants received treatment/placebo |
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Placebo Effect |
Experimental results caused by expectations alone |
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Confounding Variables |
Factor other than independent variable that might produce effect in an experiment |
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Social Perception |
intake and registering social information |
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Social Cognition |
use and manipulation of social information |
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Emotional Contagion |
mechanism for feelings being transferred in a seemingly automatic way |
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6 Basic Emotions |
i) Anger ii) Fear iii) Sadness iv) Disgust v) Happiness vi) Surprise |
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Face-in-the-crowd effect |
- Tendency to notice negative facial expressions even in a crowd - Threatening faces are noticed quickest |
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Emotional Arousal |
signaled when one part of the body does something to another part |
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Emblems |
Body movements carrying specific meanings in a given culture |
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Microexpressions |
fleeting facial expressions lasting only a few tenths of a second |
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Interchannel Discrepancies |
inconsistencies between nonverbal cues from different basic channels |
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Nonverbal cues to deception |
- microexpressions - interchannel discrepancies - pitch of voice rises, hesitantly speaking, errors - blink more, pupils dilate, less eye contact - exaggerated facial expressions |
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Attribution |
complex process through which we attempt to understand the reasons behind others' behaviour |
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Who developed the theory of correspondent interference? |
Jones & Davis |
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Theory of Correspondent Interference |
How can we be sure someone's behaviour reflects their character? - Focus on certain types of behaviour: 1. Freely chosen 2. Non-common effects 3. Low in social desirability |
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Kelley's Theory of Causal Attributions |
- How we answer "why?" - Central Attribution Task - Focus on 3 dimensions: 1) Consensus 2) Consistency 3) Distinctiveness |
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Consensus |
extent to which others react to the stiulus/event in the same manner as the person we're considering |
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Consistency |
extent to which person in question reacts to stimulus/event in same way on other occasions |
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Distinctiveness |
extent to which person reacts in the same manner to other stimuli/events |
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Discounting |
tendency to attach less importance to one potential cause of some behaviour when other potential causes are also present |
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Augmenting |
tendency to assign added weight/importance to a factor that might facilitate a given behaviour when both this factor and another that might inhibit such behaviour are both present, yet the behaviour still occurs |
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Weiner's Model of Causal Attribution |
When looking at causes for success/failure we have 2 questions: 1) Are causal factors likely stable over time? 2) Are these factors controllable? |
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Correspondence Bias/Fundamental Attribution Error |
tendency to explain others' actions as corresponding to their dispositions |
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Perceptual Salience |
more perceptually prominent to observer |
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Actor-Observer Effects |
tendency to attribute our own behaviour mainly to situational causes but the behaviour of other mainly to dispositional causes |
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Self-Serving Bias |
tendency to attribute our own + outcomes to internal causes and - outcomes to external causes |
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Two explanations for Self-Serving Bias |
1) Cognitive: we expect ourselves to succeed. How we process social info. 2) Motivational: protect and enhance our self-esteem |
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Self-Effacement/Modesty Bias |
Individuals make internal attributions for their failures and external attributions for their successes |
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Holistic Thinking |
- associated with East Asia & Confucianism - orientation to context. Relationships between people and social world. - Knowledge is experience based |
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Analytic Thinking |
- associated with classical greek & europeans - focus on individuals detached from context - formal logic |
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Schemas |
- mental structures people use to organize their thoughts - influence what info enters memory, gets attention, interpretation |
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Person Schemas |
- schemas that hold info about how a person might behave - influence what we notice and remember about a person |
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Role Schemas |
centered around social roles |
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Scripts |
schemas centered around common events |
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Encoding Process |
determining which info is entered into memory |
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Perseverance Effect |
tendency for beliefs and schemas to remain unchanged even in face of contradictory info |
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Heuristics |
simple decision making rules we often use to make inferences or draw conclusions quickly and easily |
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Representativeness Heuristic |
-helps us make a decision by comparing information to our mental prototypes - often ignore base rates |
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Availability Heuristic |
helps us make a decision based on how easy it is to bring something to mind |
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Priming |
increased availability of info resulting from exposure to specific stimuli/events - role in self-serving bias |
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Automatic Processing |
after extensive experience w/ a task/type of info we reach a stage where we can perform the task or process in the info in a seemingly effortless, automatic, unconscious manner |
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Negativity Bias |
Greater sensitivity to negative info than to + |
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Optimistic Bias |
predisposition to expect things to turn out well overall |
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Unrealistic Optimism |
tendency to believe you are more likely to experience + events, and less likely to experience negative events, when compared to similar |
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Planning fallacy |
tendency to make optimistic predictions about completion of a task |
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Counterfactual thinking |
tendency to imagine outcomes in a situation other than those that actually occurred - Can be upward or downward |
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Cognitive Tuning Model |
- Shwartz 1990 - suggests + affective states inform us that the current situation is safe |
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Mood dependent memory |
what we remember while in a good mood may be determined in part by what we learned when previously in that mood |
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Mood congruence effects |
We are more likely to store/remember + info when in a + mood and - info in a - mood |
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Self-Reference Effect |
When we think about something in relation to ourselves, we are more likely to remember it |
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Individualists |
concerned with personal success, achievement, and self-fulfillment |
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Collectivists |
concerned with attaining group goals and solidarity/fulfilling social responsibilities |
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Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale |
most frequently used assessment of global self-esteem |
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Global Self-esteem |
person's overall evaluation of self and sense of self worth |
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Social Comparison Scale |
How you think of yourself relative to others the same age, sex, and education as yourself - <3 = below average - >3 = above average |
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Attitudes |
evaluations of people, ideas, or objects |
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Three Components of Attitudes |
i) Cognitive Component ii) Affective Component iii) Behavioural Component |
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Classical Conditioning |
phenomenon whereby a stimulus that elicits an emotional response is repeatedly paired with a neutral stimulus that does not, until the neutral stimulus takes on the emotional properties of the first stimulus |
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Operant Conditioning |
phenomenon in which behaviours we freely chose to perform become more or less frequent, depending on whether they are followed by reward or punishment |
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Characteristics of Affectively Based Attitudes (3) |
i) Do not result from rational examination of the issues ii) Not governed by logic iii) Often linked to person's values |
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Behaviourally Based Attitudes |
Attitude based on observations of how one behaves toward an object |
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Self-Perception Theory |
Under certain circumstances people don't know how they feel till they see how they behave |
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Explicit Attitudes |
Attitudes we consciously endorese and can easily report |
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Implicit Attitudes |
Involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious evaluations |
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Cognitive Dissonance Theory |
people experience dissonce when they do something that threatens their image of themselves as decent, kind, and honest |
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Yale Attitude Change Approach |
study of conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages, focusing on source of communication, nature of communication, and nature of the audience |
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Elaborate Likelihood Model of Persuasions |
explains two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change |
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Central Route to Persuasion |
people are motivated and have ability to pay attention to the arguments so they elaborate and consider the communication carefully |
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Peripheral Route to Persuasion |
people don't elaborate on arguments but are swayed by peripheral cues |
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Fear-Arousing Communications |
persuasive message that attempts to change peoples attitudes by arousing their fears |
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Heuristic-Systemic Model of Persuasion |
explanation of the two ways in which persuasive communciations can cause attitude change: systematically or using heuristics |
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Attitude Inoculation |
making people immune to attempts to change their attitudes by initially exposing them to small doses of the arguments against their position. Forces you to consider arguments against your attitude before someone attacks it. |
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Reactance Theory |
People don't like feeling their freedom to do/think whatever they want is being threatened |
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Attitude Accessibility |
strength of association between an attitude object and person's evaluation of that object, measured by speed with which people can report how they feel about the object |
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Theory of Planned Behaviour |
idea that people's intentions are the best predictors of their deliberate behaviours, which are determined by their attitudes toward specific behaviours, their subjective norms, and their perceived behavioural control |
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Subjective Norms |
beliefs about how people they care about will view the behaviour in question |
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Perceived Behavioural Control |
Intentions are influenced by ease with which they believe they can perform the behaviour |
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Subliminal Advertising |
words/pictures not consciously perceived but may nevertheless influence people's judgements, attitudes, and behaviours |
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Critical Thinking |
Examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions |
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Illusory Correlation |
there's an apparent relationship between 2 things but they probably aren't related |
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The scientific method depends on: |
i) Accuracy ii) Humility iii) Objectivity iv) Open-mindedness |
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Third Variable Problem |
- A --> B - B --> A - C --> A + B |
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Statistical Significance doesn't mean... |
- importance - reality - clinical significance |
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Group Schemas |
Provide us with a notion about a particular group of people (eg. car sales people) |
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Self Schemas |
Provide us with info about how we will likely react in circumstances |
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Self-Fulfilling Prophesy |
when people act on their schemas in ways that reduce likelihood that new (unsupportive) info will be encountered |
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Base Rate Information |
using info to make judgements on basis of relative frequencies of members of different categories in population |
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Controlled Processing |
- thinking that is conscious, voluntary, intentional - slower than automatic processing - requires motivation & effort |
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Theory of Automatic Believing |
i) Initially accept info (Automatic) ii) Assess Truthfulness of Accepted Beliefs (Controlled) iii) Unaccept if necessary (Controlled) |
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Self-Concept |
- sum total of peoples beliefs and attitudes about themselves - helps us determine how we process info related to ourselves |
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Critical Thinking |
Examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions |
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Self-Complexity |
extent to which your self concept is organized so aspects of the self are distinct from one another |
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Self-Esteem |
Individuals attitude toward the self |
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Trait Self-Esteem |
fairly stable across different situations (general) |
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State Self-Esteem |
depends on the current situation and surroundings |
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3 components of self-evaluation |
i) Self-Assessment ii) Self-Enhancement iii) Self-Verification |
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Self-Assessment |
- obtaining info about the self - are we were we want to be? how can be get closer? (real vs. ideal self) |
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Self-Enhancement |
- providing positive info about the self even if it's not true - related to self-enhancing bias |
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Self-Enhancing Bias |
Thinking we're better than average in every dimension |
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Self-Verification |
- confirming what is known about the self - we tend to seek info that verifies our own self-concept - Swann study |
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Two types of attitudes |
i) Uniform ii) Ambivalent |
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Uniform Attitudes |
- attitudes that are strongly held and polarize - "all arrows facing in the same direction" |
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Ambivalent Attitudes |
- attitudes that have positive and negative components--> pros and cons! |
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Sufficient Justice |
If an individual can justify why their attitude and behaviour don't match, attitudes don't change |
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Need for Cognition |
personality variable reflecting extent to which people engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive activities |