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41 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Psychology
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Scientific study of how individuals think, act and feel
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Norman Triplett
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• First social psychology experiments
o Do bicyclists race faster against each other or against the clock? Racing times seemed to be better when competing against other cyclists o Experiment to test this hypothesis 40 children were asked to wind up a fishing reel Children were faster when they worked side by side than when they worked alone. o Conclusion: people perform better when another person is present |
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Stanley Milgram
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Video with dude screaming and buttons
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Scientific Method
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State a problem for study
• Formulate a testable hypothesis • Design and conduct a study • Data analysis • Share results of the study |
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Research process
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Begin with a question
• Search literature - has this question already been answered? o Even if it has, reading the literature often leads to new questions • Refine your question into a testable hypothesis • Must be specific and falsifiable • Design & conduct the study • Publish the results o Conferences, journals o Peer reviewing keeps quality of research high • After years of testing hypotheses you may be able to combine your results into a theory - this in turn leads to more hypotheses |
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Basic research
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Goal is simply to understand some behavior
o Add to knowledge base o Mostly academic |
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Applied research
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Solve practical problems
o Apply basic research in the real world o Mostly industry |
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Descriptive research
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Observation
o Archival studies o Surveys & polls o Focus groups & interviews |
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Neuroscience
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ERP, fMRI
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Observation
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Naturalistic
o Standardized procedures o Can help define hypotheses • PROS: o Ecological validity (it’s the real world) • CONS: o Cannot infer causality (you don’t know why they did what they did) |
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Archival studies
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Use existing data
o Helpful for tracing trends over time • PROS: o Cheap, longitudinal • CONS: o Cannot infer causality (what causes what) |
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Surveys & polls
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Can measure variables that can not be manipulated (sexual identity)
o Easily conducted - phone, internet, classroom, mail o Self-reports (just asking without proof) • PROS: o Can measure many variables that can not be directly manipulated • CONS: o Wording may effect responses; cannot infer causality |
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Interviews & focus groups
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Combine elements of observation and surveys
o Used to determine group opinions - not just individual opinions • PROS: o Ecological validity & ability to measure many variables • CONS: o Very sensitive to wording and behavior of interviewer; lack of control; cannot infer causality |
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Correlational research
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Used to test relationship hypotheses
• Can be used to examine subject variables (things that cannot be manipulated, such as hair color) • PROS: o Can examine variables that can not be manipulated (as with descriptive research); allows more control than descriptive research • CONS: o Correlation is not causation! (as with descriptive research) |
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Experimental research
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Conducted in a lab
• Most of the research we will discuss is experimental • Must have a falsifiable hypothesis o It must be able to be proven wrong • Manipulate a variable and measure responses • Control as many extra variables as possible that may affect your measure Experimental research • PROS: o Can infer causality; lots of control • CONS: o Lack of ecological validity - being in a lab may change what you are studying |
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Meta-analysis
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Combine data from many studies
• Helps to identify consistent findings (some experiments may have inconsistent results) |
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Neuroscience
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brain imaging
PROS: o By understanding the brain mechanisms underlying cognitive processes we can gain insight into the processes o Expectations cannot influence • CONS: o Expensive equipment! (fMRI costs millions) o Temporal resolution may be poor - one PET scan takes 30 sec o Spatial resolution may be poor - which part of the brain is active? Individual differences in brains makes averaging across people difficult o May require a team of researchers to conduct a study (about 12 people) o Radioactive tracers may limit the ability to retest a single subject |
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CAT, MRI
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o Pictures of the brain
o Used to identify areas of damage |
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PET, fMRI
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o Measure blood flow
o PET uses radioactive trace and fMRI relies on magnetic principles of blood o Used to identify areas of the brain that are active during a task |
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EEG, ERP
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Electrical activity
o EEG is used to measure states (awake, asleep) and ERP can be used to measure expectations and categories |
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Internal validity
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o Quality of cause - effect relationship (did the IV cause the effect) (how well you you believe the independent variable actually controlled the dependant variable)
o Confounds (anything other than the independent variable that can effect the dependant variable (colorblindness) o Experimenter expectancy effects |
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External validity
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o How generalizable are your results? (is this true of other people or only the people you study
o Mundane realism o Experimental realism Deception conferation |
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The Self
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Self-concept (self-knowledge)
o Public self o Executive function (behavior control) |
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Self-concept
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What we believe about ourselves
Im steve Im allergic to peanuts I like music o Based on self-schemas These are beliefs we hold about ourselves Self-schemas guide our interpretation and understanding of experiences • How often do we think about ourselves? o 8% of reported thoughts o Mainly unhappy when thinking about self • Development of self-concept o When you recognize yourself in a mirror o 18-24 mos. o Great apes are only other animals |
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Self-awareness
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Private self-awareness (just you. Alone)
o Thinking about your inner states, like emotions, desires o Introspection Public self-awareness o Worry about how others see you o Compare yourself to various standards |
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Avoid self-awareness
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• May avoid mirrors if you feel you have done something “bad”
• Drugs, binge eating, alcohol (escaping a negative view of self-awarness) o Suicide |
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Self-awareness
• Where does it come from? |
Two possibilities:
o From other people o Introspection From others: • Sometimes you use feedback to develop your self-concept o Sometimes other people (friends, family) see you very differently from your own self-concept • Others don’t like to give negative feedback • We only believe feedback that is consistent with our self-concepts |
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Introspection
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The idea is we have privileged access to ourselves
Children actually think their parents know more about their internal states until age 11 • There are other problems with introspection (just how good are we at figuring ourselves out) o We may be more aware of the end result than of the process |
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Affective forecasting
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Predicting how you will feel about something in the future
o How happy will you be if you get an A? How unhappy will you be if you get in a car accident? • People generally think that their feelings will last longer than they actually do o Durability bias |
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Bem’s self-perception theory
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Observe our own behavior to learn about ourselves
o Mainly in situations where we don’t have strong explanations for our behavior |
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Overjustification effect
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Turns play into work
o Intrinsic motivation is reduced by addition of extrinsic motivation o Depends on individual characteristics |
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Working self-concept
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Self-awareness focuses on parts of self-concept
o Depends on situation, yourself • Unique qualities will stand out o Ex. More aware of being a woman when in a group of all men |
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Self-reference
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• Pay more attention to things about yourself
• Can remember words better when you associate them with yourself during learning |
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Endowment effects
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Things that belong to you have more value than other things
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Changing self-concept
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We see other people as very stable, they see us as very stable
o Same personalities, behaviors, etc. o This means people continue to treat you the same way, even when you change • Self-concept is easier to change when your social group changes |
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Self-esteem
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• What purpose does it serve?
o Innate need to interact with others and have their approval - self-esteem acts as indicator • Self-esteem may perpetuate itself o High self-esteem may lead to increased efforts and greater chance of success (more confidence means bigger challenges) |
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Self-discrepancy theory
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Self-discrepancy is a component of self-esteem
o Self-discrepancy: difference between how we see ourselves and how we would like to be o Actual self, standards, ideals • Large discrepancies may be related to anxiety, depression, disappointment (when you think you are below the standard) |
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Self-enhancement
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Overestimate contributions, abilities, control, intelligence, social skills
o Students who performed at 12th percentile estimated their performance as 62nd percentile o The worse they were the more they overestimated performance • Implicit egotism o Implicit - not aware of (also called automatic) o Ex. preference for things that begin with the first letter of our name |
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Self-handicapping
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• Point out a possible reason for failure in advance to avoid taking personal blame
• Procrastination • Sabotage your own performance so you have an excuse when you fail o Drinking, drugs, not studying |
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BIRG
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• Basking in reflected glory
• Brag about connections with successful people o When your team wins “we won!” but when your team loses “they lost” • Reflected failure - try to distance from those who fail o Sports fans whose team loses may lose faith in themselves (lower testosterone) |
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Action Identification Theory
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Vallacher & Wegner (1987)
• How do we experience our own behavior? • Different levels of action occur at once, but one is dominant o Ex. You want to find out if your friend is home BY ringing the doorbell which you do BY pushing it with your finger o Finding out if your friend is home is the highest level identity, and pushing with your finger is the lowest Focus on higher levels when: o Action associated with positive emotion Winning the soccer game is better than scoring a goal or kicking a ball o Are fairly practiced at a task, or the task is easy Focus on lower levels when: o Action associated with negative emotions Reduce test anxiety by thinking about reading questions instead of getting a bad grade o Avoid feeling guilty Criminals focus on low level actions like how to break into a house, sell stolen goods, not high level actions like stealing from someone |
