Social Development Exam 2

Front 1

What does Bradley (2007) identify as the six fundamental tasks involved in child-rearing?

Back 1

i. Provide safety and sustenance to their children if they are to survive.
ii. Give socioemotional support to promote their children’s psychological health.
iii. Provide adequate stimulation and instruction.
iv. Surveillance or monitoring the child, or knowing where they are and how they are developing.
v. Providing structure, or family routines, organization, and discipline.
vi. Providing social connectedness to family, friends, and others.

Front 2

List the four fundamental dimensions of parenting in Holden et al.

Back 2

i. Tasks (see Bradley (2007) above)
ii. Dimensions (i.e., responsiveness, structure, and autonomy support)
iii. Style (i.e., attitudes toward the child that create an emotional climate)
iv. Practices (i.e., actual parenting behaviors engaged in)

Front 3

Watson (1926), Lewis (1981), and Harris (1995) all differ in regard to who or what the primary causal agent responsible for changes in and development of the child. Who or what is the causal agent for each of the theorists?

Back 3

a. Watson: primary causal agent was parent unidirectionally on child.
b. Lewis: primary causal agent was child when looking at parental behavior and its effects.
c. Harris: primary causal agent was peer influence during adolescence.

Front 4

What are the two key specific child-rearing practices associated with adolescence? What discipline behaviors are they associated with?

Back 4

a. The two key practices are limit setting and monitoring.
i. Limit setting is associated with informing adolescents that they can’t engage in particular activities or go out with certain people or have to be home at certain times.
ii. Monitoring is a set of correlated parenting behaviors involving attention to and tracking of the child’s whereabouts, activities, and adaptations.

Front 5

How do single parents differ from two-parent families in child management?

Back 5

a. Single parents, both moms and dads, tend to get more irritable and angry with their children compared with married parents.
b. Single parents tend to adopt a positive, problem-solving orientation to child management, in contrast to two-parent discipline-oriented styles.

Front 6

What are two reasons that discipline may be more challenging after divorce?

Back 6

a. Children are likely to react to disruption and change of divorce with behavior problems which are responded to with discipline.
b. Child-rearing disagreements in general, and discipline in particular, remain a source of continuing conflict between divorced parents; noncustodial fathers tend to adopt permissive and indulgent parenting styles.

Front 7

What is the difference between guilt and shame?

Back 7

a. Guilt is associated with transgression; e.g., “I do bad things.” Focus on specific acts.
b. Shame is associated with failures and shortcomings; e.g., “I am weak, incompetent, and inferior.” Focus on the global self.

Front 8

Where do guilt and shame originate?

Back 8

a. Guilt originates in the child’s fear of active punishment by superiors.
b. Shame originates in the child’s fear of social expulsion and abandonment.

Front 9

What distinguishes a “shame-socialized culture” from a “non-shame-socialized culture”?

Back 9

a. Shame-socialized culture: individuals are strongly socialized to be aware of what others think of them, and are encourage to act so as to maximize the positive esteem they are granted from others, while trying to avoid incurring their disapproval.
b. Distinguishing points from non-shame-socializing culture:
i. Members are explicitly expected to acquire a sensitivity to shame and to other peoples’ opinions, judgments, and evaluations.
ii. Failing to acquire this sensitivity has great social consequences and earns the contempt of others.

Front 10

How does the concept of authoritarian parenting style differ between Western cultures versus Chinese cultures?

Back 10

a. In Western cultures: implies hostility, dominance, aggression, and rejection.
b. In Chinese culture: “training” takes place in the context of a supportive, involved, and physically close mother-child relationship.

Front 11

Describe the concept of jihui jiaoyu (opportunity education) as it relates to the socialization of shaming in the Taiwanese culture that Fung studied.

Back 11

a. Involves two connecting ideas. First, the child’s immediate experience provides an opportunity to situate the lesson in concrete terms. Second, parents should take every opportunity to do so.

Front 12

Describe the typical 5-step sequence of events found in a prototypical event of shame.

Back 12

i. Child’s precipitating transgression
ii. Caregiver’s reprimand and elicitation of shame feelings
iii. Child’s resistance
iv. Child’s compliance
v. More caregiver’s shaming and reasoning

Front 13

Define self-conscious emotions and list the 4 from Fung.

Back 13

a. Self-conscious emotions are emotions that relate to our sense of self and our consciousness of others’ reactions to us (note that this term is NOT defined in the article!). The self-conscious emotions listed in the article are shame, guilt, embarrassment, and pride.

Front 14

What general conclusion about the long-term effects of divorce was offered in the Hetherington research?

Back 14

a. Divorce and remarriage results in less social capital, more risk in terms of stress and social outcomes.
b. BUT, most kids from divorced and remarried families are reasonably competent and adjusted in an absolute sense. Note that this finding conflicts with other studies on the effects of divorce, but Hetherington has the biggest dataset.

Front 15

According to Emery, how can one determine power and intimacy of a relationship from examining a conflict?

Back 15

a. If the outcome is important, then the conflict is probably a power struggle. I.e., if it can be resolved, come to some outcome, and conflict diminishes, then it was a power struggle.
b. If you come to resolution/outcome but conflict persists, then probably intimacy problem.

Front 16

Distinguish between horizontal and vertical relationships.

Back 16

a. Parent/child is ideal prototype of vertical relationship. Power is not equal.
b. Peer is ideal prototype of horizontal relationship. Power is equal.

Front 17

What were the two findings of the meta-analysis performed by Baer & Martinez (2006) concerning maltreatment and attachment?

Back 17

They found that maltreated children were more likely to have disorganized insecure attachment styles and this effect was even greater for physically abused children compared to children labeled “failure to thrive”.

Front 18

List 4 (of 7) possible mediators of intergenerational continuity of child maltreatment.

Back 18

Mediators of intergenerational continuity of maltreatment are inconsistent disciple from parents, depression and PTSD in parents, parents’ anger, living with a violent adult, becoming a parent before age 21, and mental illness.

Front 19

How do maltreated toddlers behave in comparison to children who have not been abused or neglected? How does this trend continue?

Back 19

Abused and neglected toddlers tend to be more aggressive, less prosocial, and more disturbed in response to the distress of others compared to non-abused children. This pattern continues into late childhood and adolescence in the form of more conflicted friendships and less positive affect in friendship activities.

Front 20

List and briefly describe the four main categories of abuse and neglect addressed in the 1974 Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act. Empirically, what is the most common form of abuse?

Back 20

Physical abuse refers to non-accidental physical harm to the child. Sexual abuse is involving the child in sexual activity for gratification or financial benefit of the perpetrator. Psychological abuse refers to actions other than physical and sexual abuse that may cause behavioral, cognitive, affective, and psychological problems. Neglect is the failure to provide necessary age-appropriate care when the caregiver is financially able to do so. Neglect is the most common form of maltreatment while physical abuse is the most common type of abuse.

Front 21

What are the gender and socioeconomic differences found in research on childhood maltreatment?

Back 21

Rates of sexual abuse are about three times greater for girls than boys. Other types of abuse and neglect are about equal across genders. Maltreatment, especially neglect, is more prevalent in households of low socioeconomic status.

Front 22

Briefly summarize the findings from the Fourth National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect (NIS-4; Sedlak et al., 2010).

Back 22

This study found that the annual incidence of child harm from maltreatment was about 1.25 million cases per year. The annual incidence of child endangerment from maltreatment was more than twice as high (about 3 million). Rates of maltreatment are lower for infants and toddlers compared to older children and adolescents. The study showed the trends described by questions 4 and 5 above.

Front 23

What were 3 correlates of resilient found for 10-to 18-year-olds with “good outcomes” in the study by Werner and Smith (2001)?

Back 23

They found that resiliency in 10-18 year olds was related to personal characteristics (average intelligence and sociability), close relationships with parent substitutes (extended family), and community support.

Front 24

What are 3 (of 4) protective processes Rutter (1987) identified as relevant to resilience?

Back 24

First, there are processes that reduce risk or modify exposure to risk. There are processes that reduce the likelihood of negative chain reactions that may arise from risk. There are processes that promote self-worth via relationship support and task accomplishment. Finally, there are processes that give children opportunities for good outcomes.

Front 25

Distinguish among universal, selective, and indicated prevention programs.

Back 25

Universal interventions are offered to everyone in a community regardless of their risk level. Selective interventions are only offered to people who already have certain risk factors. Indicated interventions are aimed at people who are exhibiting early signs of problem behavior, not necessarily risk factors.

Front 26

What are three of the six risk factors examined in Rutter’s longitudinal study of cumulative risk?

Back 26

Rutter’s risk factors were marital distress, low socioeconomic status, large family size, parental criminality, psychiatric disorders in mothers, and admission of the child into the care of local authorities.

Front 27

What are the two paradigms for intervention logic models?

Back 27

The first aspect of a logic model is the developmental theory. The developmental theory describes how risk factors, protective factors, and competencies naturally progress over time (without the help of the intervention) to affect the outcome of interest. The second aspect is the intervention theory which describes how the proposed intervention affects the risk factors, protective factors, and competencies outlined in the developmental theory.

Front 28

What does Masten posit are the implications from recent research on resilience in regards to fundamental human adaptational systems?

Back 28

Masten suggests that, because the correlates of resilience are the same features that predict good outcomes for normal children, humans have fundamental adaptational systems that promote positive development regardless of risk context. These fundamental systems include intellectual functioning, self-regulation, and child-caregiver relationships. Masten says we should instead focus on how risk factors affect these fundamental systems.

Front 29

***Briefly review the 3 benefits given in class for children who have/had secure attachments with parents?

Back 29

I was not able to find this in my notes. I’m going to e-mail Dr. Cohen or ask about it at the review session.

Front 30

What is the main distinction between supervising and monitoring? In general, what can be said about the effects of monitoring the activities of adolescents?

Back 30

Supervising refers to the behaviors of the parent when the child is direct physical contact with the parent (proximal). Monitoring refers to the contingency plans that parents set up with the child to maintain awareness of what the child is doing outside of the parent’s presence (distal), such as when teens go out with friends. In general, monitoring works when adolescents cooperate with parents’ monitoring policies, and close monitoring is related to less delinquency and troublemaking.

Front 31

What is the best way to conceptualize divorce as suggested by prospective studies about the impact of divorce on children?

Back 31

Divorce is best conceptualized as an ongoing process of marital discord rather than a single event (i.e., the official separation).

Front 32

What are the four phases of Bowlby’s normative developmental course for infant attachment?

Back 32

1. Orientation and signals with limited discrimination of figure
2. Orientation and signals directed toward one (or more) discriminated figure(s)
3. Maintenance of proximity to a discriminated figure by means of locomotion as well as signals
4. Formation of goal-corrected partnership

Front 33

***What did Ainsworth term as the “hallmark” of infant attachment?

Back 33

The ability to use their caregivers as a secure base of operations.

Front 34

How does Bowlby propose the function of the attachment system changes in middle childhood?

Back 34

Bowlby proposes it changes from maintaining proximity to the attachment figure to being aware of the availability of the attachment figure.

Front 35

***How does Kagan believe temperament and attachment relate?

Back 35

Kagan believes temperament and attachment are basically redundant.

Front 36

What are 3 ways that attachment research and theory have been overextended and/or misunderstood?

Back 36

1. How crucially the theory views the significance of early interpersonal experiences
2. The unproductive conflation of theories of maternal bonding with attachment theory
3. The debate about the degree to which attachment-related individual differences overlap with individual differences developed within alternative systems for understanding human variability

Front 37

How do results of the taxometric and principal components analysis (PCAs) published by Farley and Spieker taken in conjunction with other studies challenge the standing categorical system of classifying infant attachment security?

Back 37

The results of Farley and Spieker suggest differences in attachment are most compatible with a model in which individual differences in security are continuously rather than categorically distributed. They also found that individual differences appear to vary along two axes- attachment related avoidance and attachment related anxiety. This suggests that the current conceptualization of attachment implies avoidance and resistance are polar opposites, whereas Farley and colleagues evidence demonstrates that an infant can be simultaneously high or low on both avoidance and anxiety.

Front 38

What is the universality hypothesis and what difficulty do researchers encounter trying to provide empirical support?

Back 38

The universality hypothesis suggests all infants are born biologically prepared to develop attachment relationships with their primary caregivers.
The difficult encountered by researchers is the ability to develop a straightforward way to evaluate precisely whether a given relationship is an attachment relationship.

Front 39

What are two of the main distinctions between bonding and attachment?

Back 39

1. Bonding is deterministic and attachment is a probabilistic theory
2. Bonding reflects psychological processes specific to the adult’s emotional connection to their newborn that are presumed to come online very quickly after birth, whereas much of attachment theory concerns itself with the ways in which infants gradually organize their own attachment-related behavior around the availability and responsiveness of the primary caregiver.

Front 40

Main and colleagues hypothesized infants who display a disorganized attachment pattern are experiencing an irresolvable dilemma that may be responsible for their hard to classify behavior. What is the crux of this irresolvable dilemma?

Back 40

The crux of the dilemma is that the very individuals infants are evolutionary adapted to seek out under threatening circumstances are, in fact, the source of their greatest fear.

Front 41

What are the three stages of children’s response to maternal separation as outlined by Bowlby, Robertson, and Rosenbluth?

Back 41

1. Protest
2. Despair
3. Detachment

Front 42

What 5 criticisms were given of the research which categorized families based on dimensions of child rearing such as control and responsiveness?

Back 42

a. There is a focus on extremes.
b. There is static portrayal of interaction styles
c. Undidirectional causality
d. Style versus practices (attitudes vs. behaviours)
e. Universality leads to a potential incorrect assumption re: the way we measure warmth/ hostility

Front 43

List 3 negative side effect of the use of physical punishment.

Back 43

a. Little generalization
b. Modeling of aggression
c. Fear of punisher develops

Front 44

List Denham et al.’s three aspects of emotional competence and the three mechanisms that are used to transmit them.

Back 44

a. Emotional expression and experience- direct expression of emotions
b. Understanding emotions of self and others- comprehension, insight, and display rules
c. Emotional regulation- dampening or amplifying of internal and external emotional expression

Front 45

***What is meant by direct versus indirect effects in a family systems model?

Back 45

No answer provided