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66 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are 5 methods by which languages change?
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1. Articulatory simplification
2. Analogy 3. Reanalysis 4. Language Contact 5. Hypercorrection |
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What does it mean for a language to change by analogy?
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Analogy reflects the preference of speakers for regular patterns over irregular ones
Ex. swing/swung ~ bring/brung |
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What is morphological reanalysis?
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Typically involves an attempt to attribute a compound or root+affix structure to a word that was not formerly broken down into component morphemes.
Ex: Deriving 'burger' from 'hamburger' |
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What is hypercorrection?
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Occurs when a speaker who is attempting to speak another dialect or language overgeneralizes particular rules, such as saying 'protigy' instead of 'prodigy''
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What is a phonetically conditioned change?
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Sound change the begins as subtle alterations in the sound pattern of a language in particular phonetic environments
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What is segmental change?
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Involves the simplification of an affricate, (deaffrication)
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What are the three types of sound change?
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1. Phonetic change
2. Sequential change 3. Segmental change |
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Which of the three types of changes is assimilation?
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Most comon type of sequential changes
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What does assimilation do?
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Increases the efficiency of articulation through a simplification of articulatory movements
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What are 6 types of sequential change?
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1. ASsimilation
2. Dissimlation 3. Epenthesis 4. Metathesis 5. Weakening and Delection 6. Consonant Strengthening |
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What is palatization?
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Making the place of articulation of velar, alveolar, and dental stops more palatal
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What is an umlaut?
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The effect a vowel or sometimes a glide in one syllable can have on the vowel of another syllable
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What is dissimilation?
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The process whereby one segment is made less likea nother segment in its environment; typically occurs when it would be difficult to articuate or percieve two simlar sounds in close proximity
Ex.: anma in Latin was modified to alma in Spanish |
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Is dissimilation more or less frequent that assimilation?
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Dissimilation is less frequent
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What is epenthesis?
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Insertion of a consonant or vowel in a particular environment.
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Give an example of epthesis.
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ganra in Old English was changed to gandra, (gander)
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Give an example of dissimilation
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anma in Latin was modified to alma in Spanish
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What is metathesis?
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Change in the relative positioning of segments.
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Give an example of metathesis.
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waeps was changed to waesp, (wasp)
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What is apocope?
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Vowel deletion that involves a word-final vowel
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What is syncope?
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Vowel deletion that involves a word-internal vowel
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What types of vowels are particularly susceptible to deletion?
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Vowels in an unstressed syllable, such as veg(e)table and int(e)rest
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What happens in vowel reduction?
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Full vowels are reduced to a schwa-like vowel
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What is friciton?
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Stop consonants weak to fricatives.
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What is voicing?
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Voiceless stops or voiceless fricatives weaken to voiced stops or voiced fricatives
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What is rhotacism?
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Weakning that typically involves the change of /z/ to /r/; often preceded by a stage involving the voicing o /s/ to /z/
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What is deaffrication?
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Has the effect of turning afrfricates into fricatives by eliminating hte stop portion of the affricate
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Has deaffrication occurred in English?
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No
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Give an example of substitution.
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laugh changed from lau/x/ in Middle English to lau/f/ in Modern English
thin is pronounced /f/in in Cockney |
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What are 3 types of phonological change?
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1. Splits
2. Mergers 3. Shifts |
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Give an example of a merger.
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In Cockney English, all /th/, (/theta/), become /f/
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Give an example of grammaticalization.
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French '-ment' made its way into the English language; eventually applied to the endings of words that were not of French origin
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What is fusion?
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Speifcific type of grammaticalization where words develop into affixes, (either prefixes or suffixes)
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What is an affix?
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A prefix or a suffix
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Give an example of fusion.
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'had,'meaning state, condition, or rank became '-hood'
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What are synthetic languages?
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Have many inflectional affixes
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Give examples of folk etymology.
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'muskrat'comes from Algonquin 'musquash;' unrelated to either 'musk' or 'rat'
woodchuck comes from Algonquin 'otchek,' and is unrelated ot either 'wood' or 'chuck' |
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Do all languages make a distinction between subject and direct object?
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Yes
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What does the addition of lexical items often result from?
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Result of technological innovations and contact with other cultures; such developments result in lexical gaps that can be filled by adding new words to the lexicon
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What is substratum influence?
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The effect of a politically or culturally nondominant language on a dominant language in the area, such as borrowing vocabulary items from Native Americna langauges
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What is substratum influence usually restricted to?
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PLace names and unfamiliar items or concepts.
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What is superstratum influence?
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The effect of ap olitically or culturally dominant lnaguage on another language
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What type of words often result from superstratum influence?
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Government terms
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What is adstratum influence?
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Situation in which two langauges are in contact and neither one is clealry politically or culturally dominant
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Give an example of a word that was lost.
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flytme - a blood-letting instrument
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What is a protolanguage?
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Language that has been reconstructued; made up of protoforms
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What is the phonetic plausibility strategy?
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Requires that any changes posited to account for differences between the protoforms and later forms must be phonetically plausible
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What is the majority rules strategy of reconstruction?
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Stipulates that if no phonetically plausible change can account for the observed differences, then the segment found in the majority of cognates should be assumed
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What are 2 reconstruction strategies?
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1. Phoneticaly pluaisbility strategy
2. Majority rules strategy |
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What did Jakob Grimm do?
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In 1822, Grimm became the first person to explain the relationships among cognates in various INdo-European langauges in terms of a sound shift
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What is Grimm's Law?
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Name given to the consonant shifts that took place bewteen Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Germanic
Ex.: /p/ became /f/ and /t/ became /theta/ |
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What did AUgust Schleicher do?
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Developed a classificaiton for the Indo--Euroepan langauges in the form of a geneological tree
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Summarize all of these different lists of bulleted categories.
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Language Change: AARL(BH)
Sounds Change: Segmental, Sequential, (Assim., Dissim., Epent., Metath., Consonant Weakening, Strengthening), Phonetic Change, (merger, shift, split) |
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Give 3 examples of consonant weakening.
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1. Degemination: Geminates weaken to nongeminates
2. Frication: Stops weaken to fricatives 3. Voicing: Voiceless stops/fricatives to voiced stops/fricatives |
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What is the only segmental change given?
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Deaffrication, (turns affricates into fricatives)
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What is a split.
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Allophones of same phoneme contrast with each other due to loss of conditioning
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What are mergers?
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Two or more phonemes collapse into a single one reducing the number of phonemes in a language
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What are shifts?
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Series of phonemes systemtically modified so organizaiton with respect to each is altered.
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What is an example of a shift
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Great English Vowel Shift
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What is fusion?
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Case where two words become fused together to become a single unit consisting of a base and affix
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What were Old English affixes that were lost?
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Affixes marking case and gender
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What is the difference between a synthetic language and an analytic language?
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Synthetic languages have many affixes, whereas analytic ones have few
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Is English a synthetic language or an analytic one?
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Analytic language, (used to be more of a synthetic one)
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Why was the European language family reconstructed as the Proto-Indo-European family?
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Discovery that Sanskrit related to European languages
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Give an example of consonantal strengthening.
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Glide strengthening, (strengthening of a glide to an affricate)
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What is glide strengthening?
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Strengthening of a glide to an affricate.
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