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140 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Sociological Theory
Asks the Big Questions: |
What is society?
What causes social change? Why is there injustice/inequality? How is the individual related to others How does one approach the study of society (sociology)? |
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RESEARCH:
What is it? |
an attempt to develop knowledge
based on “empirical” – evidence from the real world |
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Positivism
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(objective: uncovering natural laws)
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Vershtehen
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(subjective, understanding the experience of the subjects)
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History of Research in Sociology
1850 |
1850, Martineau – descriptive (“Empirically grounded, narratively vivid” description of the principles governing social life)
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History of Research in Sociology
1900 |
1900, Durkheim, comparative
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History of Research in Sociology
1930 |
1930, Chicago, participant/observer
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History of Research in Sociology
1950 |
1950, Statistics
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History of Research in Sociology
1975 |
1975, combinations & secondary analyses
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SURVEYS
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Depends on right people, right questions
Can describe or explain or both What they do well What they do poorly Steps |
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QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH |
Ethnography
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PARTICIPANT OBSERVER
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Steps
Choose Topic; join group Stage 1: “keep your mouth shut” Stage 2: penetrate to a true understanding Stage 3: withdraw and write Limits hard to repeat precisely may not be “representative” Researcher’s focus is selective Researcher may “go native” |
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Issue you are exploring: quantitative
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needs theory verification
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Issue you are exploring:
qualitative |
needs theory generation
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Unit of Analysis:
quantitative |
population
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Unit of Analysis:
qualitative |
individual/group
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Your questions require:
quantitative |
measurement, determination of cause effect, prediction
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Your questions require:
qualitative |
discovery, exploration, detailed description
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Your design is amenable to being:
quantitative |
tightly structured, with clear a priori questions and predefined variables
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Your design is amenable to being:
qualitative |
loosely structured, with evolving design and emerging variables
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RESEARCH:
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an attempt to develop knowledge
based on the “Empirical” – evidence from the real world |
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ACTIVISM
(Action) What is it? |
An intentional effort to create change
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Social Movements
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A social movement is an organized social group that acts with continuity and coordination to promote or resist change in society or other social units.
Social movements are the most organized form of collective behavior, and they tend to be the most sustained. |
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collective behavior that is not a social movement:
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crowds, panic, riots, fads, fashion, hystercal contagion, scapegoating
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Type of Social Movements
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Personal transformation movements - hippie, new age
Social change movements - environmental and animal rights movements Reactionary movements - Aryan Nation, Right-to-Life |
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Elements Necessaryfor Social Movements
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Pre-existing communication network.
Pre-existing grievance. Precipitating incident. Ability to mobilize. |
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Resource Mobilization Theory
(Mayer Zald – U/M) |
Explores how movements “gain momentum by successfully garnering resources, competing with other movements, and mobilizing their available resources.”
Also notes how movements are connected to each other. |
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Political Process Theory
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“Movements achieve success by exploiting a combination of internal factors (ability to mobilize resources) and external factors (changes occurring in society).”
“Stresses the vulnerability of the political system to protest.” |
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New social movement theories (William Gamson, former U/M)
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Tend to stress cultural factors rather than structural factors:
the importance of meaning systems in mobilizing collective action how new identities are formed within social movements. |
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Hull House
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Jane Addams, settlement movement, food, shelter, education
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Addams’ sociological writing
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derived from her “hands-on” activism, working with the poor of Chicago, especially immigrants, especially women.
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Key themes -social movement
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The sociologist analyzes the situation-at-hand in order to create positive social change.
The individual agent is the unit of analysis. America configures key social elements in ways that must be changed to attain true democracy. |
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Democracy and Social Ethics (1902)
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America must raise our moral concerns from the personal level to the social (ethics). This requires a better understanding of others’ experiences: sociology can help.
Our ethics are reflected in the way we provide for the disadvantaged. We need to improve in this area. Economic deprivation in childhood skews the individual’s perspective. Our current mode of government is intended to enforce individual compliance with 18th century ideals. Instead, we need to examine the social factors that produce deviance. |
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Saul Alinsky
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Saul David Alinsky is generally considered the father of community organizing.
Organized Chicago neighborhoods for political action, beginning in the 1930s. Served as a precursor of 1960s grassroot political movements.’ Later organized stockholders to lend their votes to "proxies", who would vote at annual stockholders meetings to support social justice. (Precursor of shareholder activism.) Alinsky called mainstream liberalism “passive” and “ineffective.” |
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Rules for Radicals
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Saul Alinsky- the most effective means are whatever will achieve the desired ends
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The core truth of the activist:
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people have the power to act and will ultimately reach the right decisions.
All other truths are relative and changing. |
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Alinsky- self interest
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The world is an arena of power politics moved primarily by self-interest. Morality is a rhetorical rationale for expedient action and self-interest.
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Alinsky-religion
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Organized religion is materially solvent and spiritually bankrupt.
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Alinsky-means of change
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Create mass organizations to seize power.
Take hot, impulsive passions and turn them to calculated, purposeful, effective actions. Use power for a more equitable distribution of the means of life |
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central point
health care- Functionalism |
Health care system plays a role in success of larger society
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central point
health care- Conflict Theory |
Health care reflects the inequalities in society
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central point
health care- Symbolic Interaction |
Illness is partly socially constructed
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policy implications
health care- Functionalism |
Examine & improve how health care is serving the larger society.
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policy implications
health care- Conflict Theory |
Improve access to health care; reduce cost
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policy implications
health care- Symbolic Interaction |
Re-examine how we define illness/healthcare is; the role of patient, doctor, etc.
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Unequal distribution of health care by race–ethnicity, social class, or gender.
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Health care is more available to White or middle-class individuals than to minorities and the poor
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Unequal distribution of health care by region.
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Each year, many people in the U.S. die because they live too far away from a doctor, hospital, or emergency room.
Inadequate health education of inner-city and rural parents. |
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Specialization in Medicine:Lack of Primary Care Physicians
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With the end of World War II 1945, there was tremendous growth in the medical establishment and increased specialization.
Today, specialists (80% of physicians) greatly outnumber general practitioners (20%). |
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health care- Social Class
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The lower the social status of the person or family, the less access they have to adequate health care.
Nearly 41 million Americans—14.5% of the population—have no health insurance. |
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Being in a racial or ethnic minority in the United States influences physical and mental health.
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White men can now expect to live to 75 years of age (on average).
African American men have a life expectancy of only 68.6 years. White women can expect to live 80.2 years. African American women can expect to live more 75.5 years. |
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Gender and Health Care
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Older women are more likely to suffer from stress, overweight, hypertension, and chronic illness than older men.
There is a tendency for the male-dominated profession to regard the problems of women as non-mainstream and "special." |
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The Cost of Health Care
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The greatest contributors to skyrocketing health care costs are:
The soaring costs of hospital care. The rise in fees for the services of physicians. |
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Medical Malpractice
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Annual malpractice insurance premiums for physicians can be as high as $150,000 for physicians in specialties such as radiology, anesthesiology, and surgery.
This cost is passed along to patients, contributing to the rise in the overall cost of health care. |
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Role of Health Maintenance organizations (HMOs)
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Private clinical care organizations that provide medical services in exchange for a set membership fee.
In 1986, there were approximately 26 million HMO subscribers in the United States, this number has risen to more than 55 million. The American Medical Association has argued that HMOs are inclined to pay too much attention to cost containment and not enough to patient welfare. |
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health care- What Experts Say Would Help
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Emphasize primary care
Stick to what works (“standard of care”) Emphasize prevention IM efficiencies through IT Manage chronic disease Import/negotiate for cheaper drugs Pay providers less Consumer-directed health care |
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health care- The Role of Government
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The U.S. government has sought to have some form of guaranteed health service, at least for certain categories of people, such as veterans, the poor, and the elderly.
The Medicare program, begun in 1965 under the administration of President Lyndon B. Johnson, provides medical insurance covering hospital costs for individuals age 65 or older. Medicaid provides health insurance for people who are poor, on welfare, or disabled. |
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The Massachusetts Plan (2006)
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Individual coverage mandate for all state residents
Fair Share Assessment for Employers “Commonwealth Connector” Sliding Scale Subsidies Medicaid Expansion for Children |
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How Many of the Following Issues Does the Mass. Plan Address?
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Unequal distribution of health care by race–ethnicity, social class, gender and region.
15-16% (some estimates as high as 29%) have no health insurance 20% GPs; 80% specialists Inadequate health education of inner-city and rural parents. High cost of health care |
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Making Coverage Affordable
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TAX CREDITS
OUT-OF-POCKET SPENDING CAPPED LOW-INCOME FAMILIES ELIGIBLE FOR MEDICAID |
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Paying for The New Coverage
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Half from reducing waste/fraud in Medicare and Medicaid
The other half from: - taxes on the rich, health care industry, and high cost plans - closing tax loopholes |
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Health Care Insurance Exchanges
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State-run and federal-run insurance brokerages for individuals and small businesses
Information provided in understandable, easy-to-compare form |
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Health Care - Strengthening the Healthcare Workforce
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Incentives to increase number of primary care doctors (and dentists).
Programs and money to support those pursuing nursing careers. Strengthen support for those involved in community, preventive and geriatric health care and education Proactive measures to adjust to future needs for healthccare professionals.. |
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Health Care - Strengthen Medicare
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Reduce, then eliminate the drug donut hole
Make preventive services free Private insurance companies in the Medicare system must use 85% for care, not admin Bring Private Medicare insurance company fees into line with regular medicare; reward their saving money Hold nursing homes more accountable Create Center for Medicare/Medicaid Innovation |
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Health Care - Shared Responsibility
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All must have Health Insurance, except in hardship cases
A penalty equal to policy cost for those who don’t comply Employers with 50+ employees must help pay coverage or face penalties Employers with 200+ employees must offer coverage or face penalties Tax credits for small employers who elect to offer coverage |
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Health Care - Prevent Waste Fraud and Abuse
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New compliance programs
Better monitoring New penalties |
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Health Care - Address Disparities
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In addition to other measures, put $11B into primary care community health centers.
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Health Care - Reward Quality, not Quantity of Care
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Bundle payments
Incent reductions in unnecessary readmission Incent high quality of care |
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Health Care -Cost Containment
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Prevention
Competition Value-based, not volume-based Reduce waste/fraud/abuse Study way to contain costs further |
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Constructionism:
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Reality is created & sustained through human social
interaction. |
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Essentialism
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Things have an indwelling, “essence” or identity.
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examples: Constructionism:
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A postiori
And humanity labeled them male and female Empiricism Continuous variables Value-free: equality |
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examples: Essentialism
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A priori
“And God created them male & female” Platonic types Categorical variables Value-laden: hegemony |
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Tracy Steele: “Doing it: the Social Construction of S-E-X”
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Definition of the sex act can vary from culture to culture.
Sex is a learned behavior. We categorize sexual behaviors, but the varieties are infinite American definition: penetration, heterosexual, male orgasm |
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Leonore Tiefer: “Unnatural Acts” (The anthropology of kissing)
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Sex is NOT a “natural” act; if it were we would all be GREAT at it!
An extended example of how one aspect of sex (kissing) is socially constructed. Differs from culture to culture (Eskimo kisses, American “French” kissing) |
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lgbtqqaai
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lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender,queer, questioning, allied, asexual and intersex
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Issues marriage licenses to same-sex couples
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VINCM + DC
vermont, iowa, new hampshire, connecticut, massachusetts |
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Recognizes same-sex marriages from other states:
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Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Maryland, Illinois
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Allows civil unions, providing state-level spousal rights to same-sex couples
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New Jersey, Illinois*, Hawaii*
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Statewide law provides nearly all state-level spousal rights to unmarried couples (domestic partnerships)
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California, Oregon, Nevada, Washington
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Statewide law provides some state-level spousal rights to unmarried couples (domestic partnerships):
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Maine, Wisconsin
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how many States have legislation or constitutions defining marriage as 1 man, 1 woman
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36
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The Muddling of Church and State
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Religious groups are exempt from many social obligations, such as taxes (“exit”)
But can affect the outcome of policy decisions (“voice”) Marriage licenses are issued by the government BUT can be signed by government officials or clergy Wedding ceremonies can be conducted by government official or clergy |
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Phenomenological Sociology
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Derived by Alfred Schutz from Edmund Husserl’s philosophy, Phenomenology
Husserl’s most influential work was Ideas: A General Introduction to Pure Phenomenology (1913; trans. 1931). |
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Phenomenological Sociology:
Is “subjective” |
viewing the world from the perspective of ordinary people (“acting subjects”), not scientific observers.
[This concern for the perspective of the subject ties to which classic sociologist?] People share a culture, a language, and a set of meaning structures that allow them to negotiate their everyday lives. |
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This social order -- or “life world” -- is
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constructed, not a natural occurrence.
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Key questions for the phenomenologist:
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(1) How do people think about their “life world”?
(2) how has the construction of the life world occurred? |
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A Phenomenological Investigation of Same-Sex Marriage
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Seeks to understand:
the everyday lives of gay/lesbian couple how they differ from other couples their relationship to larger society |
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While it may appear that immigration to the US is higher than ever…
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The percentage of US residents who were not born here (12%) is not much higher than it was 150 years ago (10%).
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Where are immigrants from?
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Nearly half of all US immigrants are from this hemisphere; a third are from Asia.
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Where are illegal immigrants from? and where do they go?
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Over half of all illegal immigrants are from Mexico.
Most immigrants (“LPRs”) settle in CA, NY, FL or TX … and metropolitan areas |
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levels of educations with immigrants?
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Immigrants are far less likely than native born residents to have completed high school;
still, the percent of immigrants who have bachelor’s or advanced degrees is similar to the native born percentages. |
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immigrant ocupations
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most are management/professional
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immigrant health insurance
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While they are only 12.7% of the total population, the foreign-born represent 61% of the uninsured population . . .
… and 30.8% of those below the poverty line. |
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discrimination and immigrant happiness
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Most immigrants are happy that they came to the US…… but they have observed discrimination against other immigrants.
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recent immigration trends from mexico
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It appears that immigration from Mexico has slowed recently. Experts believe this is the consequence of stronger border enforcement, the decrease in US employment opportunity, and the report of financial failure (e.g., foreclosures) among those who immigrated earlier.
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Citizenship
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Citizenship is a “hot topic” in sociology, e.g., Michigan’s own award-winning sociological theorist, Margaret (Peggy) Somers: Genealogies of Citizenship: Markets, Statelessness, and the Right to Have Rights.
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The Meaning of Citizenship
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Michael Wucker:
“Changing Concepts of Citizenship and Nationality Across Time and Space” Originating in ancient city-states (e.g., Rome), the original rules of citizenship were intended to keep people from leaving. Today, citizenship rules try to manage the flow of migrants. |
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Migrant-sending nations
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developING nations who export workers, hoping they will send money home.
Offering these migrants dual citizenship is one way to retain their loyalty |
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Migrant-receiving nations
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developED nations with older populations who need to fill their work force and tax base
Offering these migrants voting rights is one way to reward their participation |
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Often the key citizenship question is “Who is allowed to become a citizen, and how?
Naturalization! |
Birth: “law of the soil” – born here
“law of blood” – born to qualified parents |
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of inequality in citizenship
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denial of citizenship
11 million people are “stateless” – they have no citizenship anywhere. There may be different rights for those who are citizens by birth vs. those who are citizens by naturalization, e.g.: Arnold & Jenny |
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Because individual nations have such strong feelings about citizenship – and because their practices are so varied –
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it will be very difficult to create any international approach to immigration that is logical and consistent.
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The Immigrant Perspective
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Alejandro Portes and Ruben Rumbaut
From Immigrant America: A Portrait |
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The patterns of US immigration now are quite diverse.
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NOT all profoundly poor. (Likelihood of having a college degree is similar for immigrant and non-immigrant.)
Some are wealthy, others are professionals or entrepreneurs A wide range of readiness to assimilate. |
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why immigrants come?
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In part, immigrants come because they CAN:
The legal system permits it. |
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Neoclassical economics:
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citizens of poor nations seek to move out of poverty
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New economics of migration:
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individual households perceive migration as a relative advantage: one possible strategy that will allow them to make a major purchase or improve investments.
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author's views on who they are and why they come?
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A demand for labor exists in the target nation
The demand is made known to the potential immigrant The opportunity represents relative advantage (It’s more “pull” by nation than “push” by immigrant) |
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Types of “human capital” among immigrants:
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Unskilled/semi-skilled
Skilled/professional Entrepreneurs |
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Types of “legal status” among immigrants:
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Unauthorized
Legal, temporary Legal, permanent Refugees, Asylees |
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This “matrix” includes three groups of immigrants that we may not often consider:
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Professionals
Entrepreneurs Refugees & Asylees |
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they Say Enforcing Immigration Laws Would Cut Poverty
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61% mostly republicans and men
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Whites vs. Latinos on Immigration, 5/10
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Favor Arizona Law: 70%(W) 31% (L)
Immigration strengthens US: 43% v. 68% Approve Obama: 38% v. 68% Positive on Republicans: 37% v. 22% Positive on Democrats: 34% v. 54% NOT registered to vote: 12% v 23% |
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“Intransigent nativism”
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“Xenophobia”
Another form of “Us vs. Them” (“identifying difference is the basis for discrimination” – who said this?) …has been with us for over a century… |
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This “nativism” responds in 1 of two ways:
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Attempts to exclude (immigration laws)
“Forces Assimilation” -- attempts to Americanize as quickly as possible (English “immersion”) |
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This “nativism” :
Ignores |
the realities of increasing globalization,
AND sometimes backfires (Latino vote in recent and upcoming elections…?) |
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“Acculturation”
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– acquire language and cultural fluency, but retain key elements of the immigrants’ culture
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“Intransigent nativism”…
COMES INTO CONFLICT WITH… |
Changing Labor markets (hour glass) –
who will fill the bottom half? Immigrants! |
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Based on historical roots of today’s labor system:
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America’s past expansionist behavior (political and economic) toward Mexico specifically and Latin America generally creates the context for immigration
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And social networks, the microstructure of migration:
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Immigrants move based on stories from relatives and friends who have gone ahead.
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Results of immigration laws and inequality
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Self-defeating policies (e.g., border crossing becomes permanent because seasonal migration is made so difficult)
Self-fulfilling prophecies (continuation of enthic inequality) |
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Why it’s worth understanding the Immigration Reform Bill of 2007 . . .
even though it wasn’t voted on and didn’t pass! |
FIND WAYS TO REGULARIZE ILLEGAL IMMIGRANTS
12-15 Million Current Illegal Immigrants HELP TEMPORARY WORKER FLOW Workplace Enforcement IMPROVE BORDER SECURITY |
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What Is Sociology?
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First and foremost, sociology is
a way of viewing the world; a mindset. |
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Durkheim was using the sociological mindset when he asserted that …
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the group – the social –
is more powerful in directing human behavior than either individual or cosmic factors. |
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The sociological mindset also examines the individual,
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but always in relationship to larger social structures.
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The sociological mindset asks questions about who has power in a given situation, who is powerless, and …
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..how does power shape people’s actions and their depiction of reality?
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Peter Berger was describing that mindset when he said,
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“A sociologist is a person intensively, endlessly, shamelessly interested in the doings of [people].”
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C.W. Mills was describing that mindset when he said that the Sociological Imagination grasps
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“history, biography and the relations between the two within society.”
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Allan Johnson was using that mindset when he said,
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“We are always participating in something larger than ourselves: social systems.”
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Theory
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Generalizations (laws?) that try to explain how the social world works and why.
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Marx:
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economic conflict
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Weber
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the ideal and the material; culture & institutions
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Durkheim
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the functioning of society
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Cooley & Mead:
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the individual in social context
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Du Bois:
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race
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Addams/Gilman:
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early feminism
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A Body of Literature
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those works that are considered “a must read” for anyone who wants to truly understand the field. Marx’s Kapital, for example.
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A Set of Issues
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Sociology also applies social theory and research to real-life problems.
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Sociology is:
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Mindset
Theory Research An Academic Discipline A Canon of Literature A Set of Issues Social Activism/Movements |
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Sociology is one more thing:
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It is a CONVERSATION about how society works.
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