Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
487 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
|
Epithelium found where rapid gas exchange occurs
|
Simple Squamous
|
|
|
|
Endothelium
|
lining of various blood vessels made of simple squamous epithelium.
|
|
|
|
This type of epithelium seeks to minimize frictional forces
|
simple squamous epithelium
|
|
|
|
Endothelium is made of what type of epithelium?
|
simple squamous epithelium
|
|
|
|
The lining of the aveoli of the lungs is made of what type of epithelium?
|
simple squamous epithelium
|
|
|
|
Mesothelium
|
simple squamous epithelium lining the gastrointestinal tract and the peritoneal lining.
|
|
|
|
Simple squamous epithelium
|
single layer of flat cells.
Squamous = fish scales |
|
|
|
What 2 types of epithelium are associated with absorption and secretion?
|
Simple Cuboidal epithelium and Simple Columnar Epithelium
|
|
|
|
What type of epithelium is found in the thyroid follicles?
|
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
|
|
|
|
What epithelium lines the proximal and distal convoluted tubules of the kidney?
|
Simple Cuboidal epithelium
|
|
|
|
Where is the nucleus located in simple columnar epithelium?
|
Toward the basal side. (Except in salivary glands where striated ducts are present)
|
|
|
|
Where is the nucleus located in simple cuboidal epithelium
|
Centrally
|
|
|
|
Where is the nucleus located in simple squamous epithelium?
|
Centrally
|
|
|
|
What type of epithelium lines the stomach, small intestine, gallbladder, and uterus?
|
Simple Columnar Epithelium
|
|
|
|
What type of epithelium is primarily protective in nature?
|
Stratified squamous epithelium
|
|
|
|
Differentiate between keratinized and nonkaratinized epethelium
|
Non keratinized has an upper layer with intact and attenuated nuclei. found lining the esophagus, vagina, and proximal anus
Keratinized epithelium is anucleate, contains dead cells which fall off. Typically forms a physical barrier. Found lining skin. |
|
|
|
What type of epithelium is found lining the vagina, [proximal anus, and esophagus?
|
Nonkeratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium
|
|
|
|
What type of epithelium lines skin
|
Keratinized stratified Squamous Epithelium
|
|
|
|
Where is stratified cuboidal epithelium found?
|
Ducts of eccrine sweat glands
|
|
|
|
Where is stratified columnar epithelium found?
|
The male urethra and larger ducts of salivary glands and the pancreas.
|
|
|
|
Transitional epithelium
|
Made of multiple layers of polyhedral cells with the uppermost layer tending to be dome shaped with fairly round nuclei.
Found in the urinary bladder and ureter. The uppermost layer in reality varies based on the amount of distention |
|
|
|
What type of epithelium lines the urinary bladder and ureter
|
Transitional epithelium
|
|
|
|
What type of epithelium lines the trachea, respiratory tract, and male reproductive tract
|
Psuedostratified columnar epithelium.
|
|
|
|
Why does pseudostratified columnar epithelium appear stratified?
|
The nucleus can be in various locations and while all cells attach tot he basement membrane, not all cells reach the lumen.
|
|
|
|
What type of epithelium can be ciliated and contain goblet cells?
|
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium.
|
|
|
|
Parenchyma
|
functional component of glands. Derived from epithelium down growths into the underlying connective tissue.
|
|
|
|
Exocrine glands
|
release their contents into free body surfaces via ducts
|
|
|
|
Endocrine glands
|
release their secretory product into the interstitium. The contents enter the vasculature and travel to distant organs.
|
|
|
|
Merocrine Secretion
|
most common, secretory product is excreted with no other cellular contents. (simple exocytosis)
|
|
|
|
What type of secretion is performed by the stomach, salivary glands, pancreas, and goblet cells.
|
Merocrine Secretion (no cellular components)
|
|
|
|
Holocrine Secretion
|
Whole cells are secreted as product.
Sebaceous glands of the integumentary system (skin) |
|
|
|
Apocrine Secretion
|
Found in the lactating breast, the lipid containing the milkfat is excreted with cytosol and some cell membrane.
|
|
|
|
What 2 types of secretion are found in the lactating breast?
|
Lipid = Apocrine (some small cellular components)
Protein = Merocine (no cell components) |
|
|
|
Lipid secretions of the breast are what type of secretion?
|
Apocrine
|
|
|
|
Milk protein secretions of the lactating breast are what type of secretion?
|
Merocrine
|
|
|
|
Zonula Occludins are AKA
|
Tight junctions
|
|
|
|
What is the function of zona occludins
|
hold cells together on the apical lateral side. Prevent diffusion between cells.
|
|
|
|
What type of cytoskeletal element hold tight junctions intracellularly.
|
Actin filamaments
|
|
|
|
What holds tight junctions intercellularly?
|
Transmembrane proteins (Occludins and Claudens)
|
|
|
|
What protein links the transmembrane proteins of tight junctions to the intramembranous components?
Name all of the components. |
Zona occludin proteins (ZO-1,ZO,3) hold the claudens and occludins to the intracellular actin filaments.
|
|
|
|
Zonula Adherens are AKA
|
Intermediate Junctions
|
|
|
|
What is the main function of intermediate junctions?
|
provide mechanical strength and overall stability to cells.
|
|
|
|
Name the components of the intermediate junction
|
1.) Ecadherins span the transmembrane space.
2.) Catenins bind the e-cadherins to the intracellualr side of the membrane 3.) Catenin binds to vinculin 4.) Vinculin binds to alpha actinin 5.) Alpha-actinin binds to actin filaments. |
|
|
|
Macula Adherins are AKA
|
Desmosomes
|
|
|
|
What is the function of desmosomes
|
Spot welds found below intermediate junctions.
|
|
|
|
List the components of a desmosome.
|
1.) desmocollins and desmogliens span the intermembrane space.
2.) Desmoplakin and plakoglobin are thickened placques ont he intracellualr side of the membrane 3.) intermediate filaments bind to desmoplakin and plakoglobins |
|
|
|
What is the function of gap junctions?
|
electrical connection rather than physical connection.
|
|
|
|
Name the structural components of a gap junction.
|
6 connexins form a connexon. When two connexons align properly, a pore is formed.
|
|
|
|
What type of junction is sensitive to low intracellular pH and high calcium?
|
Gap junctions.
|
|
|
|
Neurons are specialized for what two qualities?
|
Irritability and conductivity
|
|
|
|
What is the structural unit of the nervous system?
|
A neuron
|
|
|
|
What is the functional unit of the nervous system?
|
A circuit of neurons.
|
|
|
|
Sensory Neurons
|
Afferent neurons which convey impulses from receptors to the CNS
|
|
|
|
Motor Neurons
|
efferent neurons which convey impulses from CNS to effector cells.
|
|
|
|
Interneurons
|
large groups of neurons that connect sensory and motor neurons within the CNS
|
|
|
|
Differentiate between afferent and efferent
|
Afferent = toward the CNS
Efferent = away from CNS |
|
|
|
Describe the polarity of Motor neurons
|
multipolar
|
|
|
|
Describe the polarity of sensory neurons.
|
Unipolar
|
|
|
|
List 3 cranial nerves which are bipolar.
|
Opthalmic (I)
Optic (II) - the retina Vestibulocochlear (VIII) |
|
|
|
Perikaryon
|
cell body of a neruon
|
|
|
|
Neurons contain large clusters of basophilic, cytoplasmic organelles known as ________.
|
Nissl Substance
|
|
|
|
The presence of Nissl Substance (RER) in the neuron indicates what?
|
That it is transcriptionally active.
|
|
|
|
What is unique about the golgi apparatus in the dendrites and axons of neurons?
|
There is no golgi! The golgi is always close to the nucleus.
Hence the need for axonal transport! |
|
|
|
What is the main cytoskeletal element in Dendrites?
|
More microtubules than neurofilaments
|
|
|
|
What is the main cytoskeletal element of axons?
|
More neurofilaments than microtubules.
|
|
|
|
Does the thickness of the Axon vary? How about the dendrites?
|
No, axons maintaina constant caliber while dendrites tend to increase in caliber as they approach the cell body.
|
|
|
|
Does the Axon contain ribosomes or RER? How about the dendrites? How about Golgi Apparati
|
No, axons do not contain RER or ribosomes they require axonal transport.
Dendrites do contain ribosomes and RER. Neither contain golgi as this organelle is always near the nucleus. |
|
|
|
Describe the myelination of dendrites.
|
Dendrites are not myelinated or insulated... Only the axon is.
Dendrites never travel away from the soma, so they do not need myelination. |
|
|
|
What is the name of the plasma membrane of the axon?
|
Axolemma
|
|
|
|
Axoplasm
|
cytoplasm of the axon
|
|
|
|
Compare myelination in the CNS and PNS
|
in the CNS oligodendrocytes cover multiple individual axons.
in the PNS schwann cells cover bundles of axons. Some of which are not individually myelinated. |
|
|
|
terminal button
|
the end of the axon which makes a synapse
|
|
|
|
List the 3 parts of the chemical synapse
|
1.) Terminal Button
2.) Synapstic Cleft 3.) postsynaptic membrane |
|
|
|
Where are electrical synapses commonly found?
|
Smooth and Cardiac Muscle
|
|
|
|
What is unique about the polarization of chemical synapses vs electrical synapses.
|
Electrical synapses are not polarized!
|
|
|
|
Kinesin
|
Axonal transport protein which moves material away from the cell body. (Anterograde)
|
|
|
|
Dynein
|
Axonal Transport protein which moves material toward the cell body.
(Retrograde) |
|
|
|
Which Axonal protein is responsible for retrograde movement?
|
Dynein
|
|
|
|
What form of axonal transport is believed to be the cause of toxin access to neuronal cell bodies.
|
Fast retrograde transport.
|
|
|
|
Name the two peripheral neuroglia
|
Schwann Cells and Satellite cells
|
|
|
|
The tight winding of the schwann cell extrudes cytoplasm when making the myelin sheath. Where does cytoplasm remain?
|
In the inner and outer collar of schwann cell cytoplasm, clefts of schmidt-lanterman, and the perinodal cytoplasm
|
|
|
|
Perinodal cytoplasm
|
place where the schwann cell terminates.
|
|
|
|
What maintains a controlled environment around a neuronal cell body in the PNS?
|
Satellite cells
|
|
|
|
Name the 4 types of central neuroglia
|
Ependymal cells
Astrocytes Oligodendrocytes Microglia |
|
|
|
What are the 3 key features of microglia?
|
Macrophages of the CNS
Part of Mononuclear phagocytic system Derived form mesenchyme |
|
|
|
What glial cells remove debris of cells that die during normal development?
|
Microglia
|
|
|
|
What glial cells contain vimentin?
|
Microglia
|
|
|
|
If you found vimentin in a tumor, where was its origin?
|
Microglia
|
|
|
|
Where are protoplasmic astrocytes most commonly found?
|
Gray matter
|
|
|
|
Where are fibrous astrocytes most commonly found?
|
White matter
|
|
|
|
What glial cells regulate the Blood Brain Barrier?
|
Astrocytes (assisted in part by ependymal cells and endothelial cells with tight junctions (not glial))
|
|
|
|
If a tumor was found to contain Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), where is it's origin?
|
Astrocytes
|
|
|
|
what type of cytoskeletal element is Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein? Where is it found?
|
intermediate filament - Astrocytes
|
|
|
|
what type of glial cells make up the choroid plexus?
|
Ependymal cells.
|
|
|
|
What type of cell are ependymal cells?
|
Columnar
|
|
|
|
What two cellular features are present on the apical end of the ependymal cell?
|
cilia and microvilli
|
|
|
|
Differentiate between Ganglia and Nuclei
|
Ganglia are bundles of nerve cell bodies in the PNS, while Nuclei are groups of nerve cell bodies in the CNS
|
|
|
|
Ganglia
|
collection of nerve cell bodies in the PNS
|
|
|
|
Nuclei
|
collection of nerve cell bodies in the CNS
|
|
|
|
Endoneurium
|
Connective tissue surrounding nerve fibers and their associated schwann cells.
consists of collagen fibers and sparse population of fibroblasts |
|
|
|
Perineurium
|
Semipermeable barrier surrounding bundles of fibers that are enclosed by endoneurium.
typically one or more layers thick, contains many colllagen fibers but no fibroblasts. |
|
|
|
epineurium
|
connective tissue covering bundles of perineurium forming the outter surface of the nerve.
Dense connective tissue that carries blood vessels. |
|
|
|
what cellular adhesions form the blood brain barrier.
|
Tight junctions.
|
|
|
|
What 2 types of cells contribute to the blood brain barrier?
|
endothelium and astrocytes
|
|
|
|
Perikaryon
|
neuronal cell body
|
|
|
|
What types of nerve fibers can regenerate?
|
Peripheral nerve fibers with minor damage.
|
|
|
|
When does chromatolysis occur?
|
injury of a nerve with resulting separation of the distal end of the axon.
|
|
|
|
What occurs during chromatolysis
|
1.) Dissolution of the Nissl substance with decrease in basophilia
2.) Increase volume of perikaryon 3.) migration of nucleus to the periphery of the nucleus. |
|
|
|
How do macrophages initiate PNS nerve regeneration.
|
macrophages secrete interleukin 1 which stimulates schwann cells to secrete factors which stimulate nerve growth
|
|
|
|
Why is Interleukin 1 important for the PNS
|
in response to damage, macrophages secrete interleukin 1 which stimulates schwann cells to secrete factors which stimulate nerve growth
|
|
|
|
How does regeneration take place in PNS nerve cells distal to the site of injury?
|
The axons and myelin sheaths are removed leaving behind the perineurium and connective tissue.
Schwann cells respon to interleukin 1 secreted by macrophages by proliferating into a column of cells which guides sprouting axons. (bands of bungner) |
|
|
|
Why are mixed nerves an issue for nerve recovery?
|
Motor neurons and sensory neurons have specificv targets. Mixed neurons can be misplaced .
|
|
|
|
Which vitamin is a cofactor in carboxylation and is needed for gluconeogenesis and the anapleurotic reactions of the TCA cycle?
|
B7 - Biotin
|
|
|
|
Which Vitamin is a component of Coenzyme A?
|
B5 - Pantothenic Acid
|
|
|
|
Which vitamin carries Acyl groups in many chemical reactions.
|
B5 - Pantothenic Acid
|
|
|
|
What is a vitamin stress test?
|
Loading doses of amino acids tryptophan, methionine, and isoleucine which will stress a reaction involving each of the water soluble cofactors (except vitamin C)
|
|
|
|
What is the NAS-NRC and what does it do?
|
National Academy of Science-Nutritional Requirements Committee
Decides what is a vitamin and how much people need. |
|
|
|
Slower than average weight gain suggests what?
|
Wasting
|
|
|
|
Slower than average length gain suggests what?
|
Stunting
|
|
|
|
What percentile indicates overweight in weight for age? Obese?
|
85%tile and 97th%tile
|
|
|
|
What percentile indicates overweight in weight for length?
|
97%tile
|
|
|
|
What is the stroma?
|
Connective tissue component of that tissue.
|
|
|
|
What components are neccesary for exocrine secretion?
|
ducts
|
|
|
|
What is a volvulus
|
when small intestine winds up on itself. Can constrict blood blow and kill portion of intestine.
|
|
|
|
Which portion of a simple columnar cell contains the nucleus?
|
the basal side.
|
|
|
|
What is the one exception to the rule that the nucleus is basally located in simple columnar epithelium?
|
Striated ducts. - basolateral interdigitations physically displaced the nucleus.
These are found in salivary glands. |
|
|
|
4 layers of cuboidal cells topped with 1 layer of squamous cells is what type of epithelium?
|
stratified squamous
|
|
|
|
What type of epithelium is able to expand?
|
Transitional Epithelium
|
|
|
|
Define a carcinoma
|
malignant neoplasm derived from epithelium
|
|
|
|
Where do basal cell carcinomas originate?
|
Stratum basale.
|
|
|
|
Transitional cell Carcinoma is linked to what two things?
Is it more common in men or women? |
Smoking and Aniline blue dye
Men (3 times more likely) |
|
|
|
A person with TCC will present with blood in urine... how can you differentiate if from goodpasteurs syndrome?
|
Goodpasteurs will have proteinuria as well.
|
|
|
|
How does niacin treat hyperlipidemia?
|
Blocks diacylglycerol acyltransferase. Results in less release of LDL and less formation in the liver.
|
|
|
|
piknotic
|
flattened nuclei in sebaceous glands.
|
|
|
|
Secretory alveoli
|
apocrine secreting cells in breast.
|
|
|
|
Apocrine Glands secrete by what mechanism?
|
Merocrine. Yeah... merocrine. they are found near hair follicles.
|
|
|
|
ZO proteins are found in what cell junction?
|
Tight junctions (Zonula occludins!)
|
|
|
|
ZO1 binds to what,where?
|
binds to intracellular actin molecules in zonula occludins
|
|
|
|
ZO2 and ZO3 bind to what, where?
|
ZO2 binds occludins
ZO3 binds claudins in the zonula occludins |
|
|
|
Vibrio cholerae does what?
|
liberated ZO toxin - disrupts tight junctions (especially intestine) leads to watery diarrhea (loss of water and electrolytes)
Attacks ZO1 and ZO2 |
|
|
|
What ZO proteins are attacked by vibrio cholerae?
|
ZO1 and ZO2 - permeable intestines!
|
|
|
|
Intracellular or extracellular?
Na+ |
Extracellular
|
|
|
|
Intracellular or extracellular?
K+ |
Intracellular
|
|
|
|
Intracellular or extracellular?
Ca++ |
Extracellular
|
|
|
|
Intracellular or extracellular?
Mg++ |
Extracellular
|
|
|
|
Intracellular or extracellular?
Cl- |
Extracellular
|
|
|
|
Intracellular or extracellular?
HCO3- |
Extracellular
|
|
|
|
Intracellular or extracellular?
Protein |
Intracellular
|
|
|
|
What are 3 properties which determine transport through the cell membrane.
|
Lipiod solubility, Size, Charge
|
|
|
|
Brownian Motion
|
random motion - key to diffusion
|
|
|
|
What does Fick's law tell us?
|
flux varies linearly with concentration gradient
|
|
|
|
What differs between facilitated diffusion and diffusion.
|
Facilitated diffusion requires a transport protein.
FD flux is dependent on characterisitics of the protein not just the gradient FD can be competitively inhibited. |
|
|
|
How does flux relate to concentration gradient in facilitated diffusion?
|
non linearly, it depends on the properties of the transport protein.
|
|
|
|
How do channels and carriers differ?
|
Channels allow passage based on size and charge while carriers depend on binding to a receptor.
|
|
|
|
What limits transports in channels?
|
The time needed to remove the shell of water molecules closing the channel.
|
|
|
|
List the three types of gated channels.
|
Voltage Gated
Ligand Gated Stress (mechanical) gated |
|
|
|
What (5) factors influence membrane permeability?
|
1.) Solubility of Solute
2.) Number of transport proteins 3.) Molecular Weight of solute 4.) Thickness of the membrane 5.) Temperature |
|
|
|
Summarize the direction of water movement in osmosis
|
water moves from low solute concentration to high solute concentration.
|
|
|
|
Reflection coefficient
|
exent to which a solute molecule will be reflected back. 0 = freely permeable, 1 is impermeable.
|
|
|
|
how large can a blood cell get before lysis?
|
1.4 times. (40% larger)
|
|
|
|
Secondary Active Transport
|
coupled transporters in which one solute flows against its gradient to drive another along its gradient.
|
|
|
|
List the three types of active transport.
|
ATP, Secondary active, Light Driven
|
|
|
|
P-Type ATPase
|
involves a phosphorylated intermediate
Na/K , Ca2+ , K/H |
|
|
|
Leakage of K+ through the cell membrane leads to a buildup of more negative or more positive charge inside the cell?
|
more negative (repolarization)
|
|
|
|
Where is the chloride leak channel present?
|
muscle cells.
|
|
|
|
Why are there no known channelopathies in potassium or sodium leak channels?
|
They are lethal. no survivors = no cases.
|
|
|
|
Myotonia Congentia
AKA Beckers Disease, Thomsen's disease |
mutation in a chloride leak channels leads to inability of muscle relaxation in skeletal muscle.
|
|
|
|
What does the QT interval measure?
|
The time between depolarization and repolarization of cardiac ventricular muscle.
|
|
|
|
What is multiple sclerosis?
|
An autoimmune disease which attacks cells in the myelin sheath leading to neural defects,
|
|
|
|
Nicotinic receptors respond to what neurotransmitter?
|
Acetylcholine
|
|
|
|
Myasthenia Gravis
|
autoimmune response against nicotinic receptors in the neuromuscular junction.
|
|
|
|
Cystic Fibrosis
|
Chloride channel is mutated - cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator CFTR - This leads to unusually viscous mucous due to the lack of salty watery secretions. Lung infections typically kill the patient because microvilli cannot clear the bacteria.
|
|
|
|
Stroma
|
Structural connective tissue component
|
|
|
|
Parenchyma
|
Functional component
|
|
|
|
Mesothelium
|
Lines intestinal tract - simple squamous.
|
|
|
|
Volvulus
|
abnormally wound intestine. causes ischemia. Mesothelium creates a smooth surface which prevents its formation.
|
|
|
|
Follicles (thyroid) have what epithelial lining?
|
Cuboidal - in reality these can change to columnar or squamous based on activity (more activity = goiter = columnar)
|
|
|
|
What causes thyroid follicle epithelium to become mroe columnar?
|
PResence of extra ER
|
|
|
|
The PCT has what epithelium?
|
Simple cuboidal.
|
|
|
|
Do Columnar cells ahve microvillus border?
|
Yes
|
|
|
|
Nuclei are always at the bottom of the columnar cell except in what case?
|
Striated ducts.
|
|
|
|
ducts in the dermis are different from glands by what characteristics?
|
Ductsd are smaller and stain much more intensely. The lumen is much mroe clear. Ducts are the only example of stratified cuboidal.
|
|
|
|
What key property does transitional epithelium have?
|
It can expand. Key for the bladder and ureters.
|
|
|
|
TCC appears 3 times more likely in men or women?
|
Men
|
|
|
|
TCC is caused by smoking and what dye?
|
Aniline blue
|
|
|
|
TCC presents with hematuria but not what>
|
Proteinuria (way to differentiate between goodpastures and TCC)
|
|
|
|
True or false TCC presents with proteinuria
|
FALSE
|
|
|
|
Pseudostratified epithelia are always...
|
Ciliated
|
|
|
|
what type of secretion is simple exocytosis?
|
Merocrine
|
|
|
|
what organ is both exocrine and endocrine?
|
Pancreas
|
|
|
|
What is the most common form of secretion in the body?
|
Merocrine
|
|
|
|
pyknotic
|
flat and black nuclei in holocrine secretion
|
|
|
|
secretory alveloi are surrounded by what form of epithelium?
|
Simple Cuboidal
|
|
|
|
Milk protein secretion in the lactating breast is what type of secretion?
|
Merocrine
|
|
|
|
Milk lipids are what type of secretion?
|
Apocrine.
|
|
|
|
Apocrine glands secrete via what mechanism?
|
Merocrine
|
|
|
|
What type of glands secrete musk? What form of secretion is this?
|
Apocrine sweat glands - Merocrine secretion.
|
|
|
|
Where are tight junctions located.
|
At the apical end of the cell.
|
|
|
|
Vibrio Cholerae attacks what?
|
ZO1 and ZO2
|
|
|
|
Cholera is symtomatic with what?
|
Diarhea due to permeability of the intestines due to a lack of tight junctions.
|
|
|
|
What is also known as a nexus junction?
|
Gap junctions
|
|
|
|
What closes gap junctions?
|
Ca and low pH
|
|
|
|
Dimples on an SEM indicate what?
|
Gap junctions.
|
|
|
|
Are the cranial nerves CNS or PNS?
|
PNS
|
|
|
|
8 12 5 5 1 refers to what?
|
Spinal nerves
8 cervical 12 thoracic 5 Lumbar 5 sacral 1 coccygeal |
|
|
|
S234 keeps what off the floor?
|
Your penis!
|
|
|
|
Ganglion is a collection of nerve cell bodies in the ____
|
PNS
|
|
|
|
Nucleus is a collection of nerve cell bodies in the ___
|
CNS
|
|
|
|
The neuron has what two properties?
|
Irritibilitity and Conductivity
|
|
|
|
most neurons are what type of neuron? (sensory, motor, inter)
|
Interneurons. 99%
|
|
|
|
Motor is what side of the spinal cord?
|
Ventral
|
|
|
|
Motor neurons are afferent or efferent?
|
Efferent
|
|
|
|
at what angle do axons branch?
|
Right angles
|
|
|
|
sensory neurons have what polarity?
|
Unipolar
|
|
|
|
Motor and interneurons all have what polarity?
|
multipolar
|
|
|
|
nissl substance is primarily what organelles?
|
Ribosomes RER and Golgi
|
|
|
|
what is mnore abundant in axons? neurofilaments or microtubules?
|
Neurofilaments
|
|
|
|
What is more abundant in dendrites? neurofilaments or microtubules
|
Microtubules.
|
|
|
|
how much space is there in a synaptic cleft?
|
20nm
|
|
|
|
What is a key difference between electrical and chemical synapses.
|
Chemical synapses are polarized (unidirectional) while electrical are not!
Electrical have no neurotransmitter |
|
|
|
what two cytoskeletal elements are essential for axonal transport.
|
microtubules and neurofilements.
|
|
|
|
Anterograde = what protein
|
kinesin
|
|
|
|
Retrograde = what protein
|
Dynein
|
|
|
|
Anterograde transport involving membrane bound organelles is fast or slow?
|
Fast
|
|
|
|
How slow is slow axonal transport?
|
1mm/day
|
|
|
|
What is a neurilemma
|
Cytoplasm and membrane of cell that creates myelin which cover the axon.
|
|
|
|
what length of the axon is covered by a schwann cell? How many schwann cells are needed to cover a nerve tot he toe in a 6ft tall man?
|
.1mm roughly 10,000 minimum
100k to millions. in all. |
|
|
|
Unmyelinated axons are common in what nervous system?
|
Autonomic nervous system ANS
|
|
|
|
What glial cell is a variant of a schwann cells? what do they do.
|
Satellite Cell - provides metabolic support to a PNS cell body. no myelin.
|
|
|
|
Name the neruoglia of CNS
|
Microglia, Astrocytes, Ependymal Cells, Oligodendrocytes
|
|
|
|
What CNS neuroglial cells are mobile?
|
microglia.
|
|
|
|
Microglia
|
mobile, macrophages within the CNS
-Part of the mononuclear phagocyutic system and playa role in inflammation. -derived from mesenchyme -react to viral injuries and ischemic injuries. |
|
|
|
Which neuroglial cells are derived from mesenchyme?
|
Microglia
|
|
|
|
What are gitter cells.
|
microglia when full of granules
|
|
|
|
Vimentin is in what cells?
|
Microglia
|
|
|
|
what is the largest neuroglial cells?
|
Astrocytes
|
|
|
|
Astrocytes are mroe prevalent in grey or white matter?
|
White matter
|
|
|
|
GFAP is present in what neuroglial cells
|
Astrocytes.
|
|
|
|
With Light microscopy, These neuroglia appear as small ovoid cells, with hyperchromatic nuclei and few processes, associated with myelinated nerves.
|
Oligodendrocytes
|
|
|
|
MS affects what?
|
Oligodendrocytes
|
|
|
|
what neuroglia make CSF
|
ependymal cells.
|
|
|
|
ependymal cells are part of what?
|
Choroid plexus
|
|
|
|
perineurium surround what?
|
nerve fascicles.
|
|
|
|
What contributes to the BBB?
|
endothelial capillaries have tight junctions. Also end feet of fibrous and protoplasmic astrocytes.
|
|
|
|
DEscribe the replacement process of damaged neurons int he CNS
|
There is no replacement. glial scars form from astrocytes after microglia clear the area.
|
|
|
|
Name two cases in which neuronal replacement has been shown to occur in the PNS
|
Olfactory mucosa - bipolar neurons are replaced regularly
Autonomic Ganglia - replacement occurs "As needed" |
|
|
|
Chromatolysis is defined by what 3 effects?
|
1.) Dissolution of nissl substance = decrease in basophilia in cytoplasm
2.) increase in volume of perikaryon 3.) migration of nucleu to an eccentric position. |
|
|
|
Wallerian degradation occurs anterograde or retrograde?
|
Anterograde
|
|
|
|
When microglia clear the area of a damaged axon, what remains?
|
Schwann Cells and endoneurium remain while myelin and axonal debris is removed.
|
|
|
|
In PNS axonal repair, Sprouts of axon move through astrocytes and are called?
|
Bands of Bungner
|
|
|
|
Traumatic neuroma are extremely painful. What are they?
|
when sprouts of axons do not find their targets. they are not degenerated and thereforme easily triggered.
|
|
|
|
List 6 factors which favor return of function in nervous tissue repair.
|
1.) cut or crush injury instead of burn or shredding
2.) limited loss of internodal tissue 3.) abundant neural sprouting 4.) injury in purely motor or sensory nerve (no mixed nerves) 5.) limited scarring or blood loss 6.) no infection |
|
|
|
Does endoneurium exist in the CNS
|
NO
|
|
|
|
Why is it that the CNS does not repair, while the PNS does?
|
1.)CNS lacks endoneurium, (no guide)
2.) CNS myelin inhibits reeneration of central axons, (dont want inappropriate linkages - imagine if 2+2 suddenly equaled 5) 3.) CNS does not give rise to as many neural sprouts. |
|
|
|
The portion of spleen that faces the lumen contains what type of epithelium.
|
Mesothelium - simple squamous epithelium.
Reduces friction. |
|
|
|
Pan piniform plexus.
|
Countercurrent heat exchange for the testicle.
|
|
|
|
blood vessel lumen contain what type of epithelium.
|
Endothelium - simple squamous.
|
|
|
|
Large blood vessels have more nuclei than a single layer of cells... thought they are made of endothelium... WTF?!
|
These extra nuclei are smooth muscle cells.
|
|
|
|
Kidney tubules have what type of epithelium.
|
simple cuboidal.
|
|
|
|
The thyroid follicles contain what storage material
|
Thyroglobulin (thyroid hormone)
|
|
|
|
The thyroid follicles are surrounded by what epithelium?
|
simple cuboidal
|
|
|
|
The lining of the stomach lumen have gastric pits lined with what type of epithelium?
|
Simple columnar epithelium
|
|
|
|
Where is the nucleus in the epithelial lining which lines the gastric pits of the stomach? What do these cells secrete?
|
Toward the base since they are simple columnar epithelium without striated ducts.
They secrete mucin. |
|
|
|
goblet cells are surrounded by what epithelium which control absorption.
|
Simple columnar
|
|
|
|
The esophagus lumen is lined with what type of epithelium?
|
Non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.
|
|
|
|
Thick skin has what type of epithelium?
|
Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.
|
|
|
|
The lower GI tract where the rectum transitions to the anus has a transition of epithelium from what to what. At the terminal anus what epithelium exists?
|
Simple cuboidal to non keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. At the terminal anus, there is keratinized stratified squamous epithelium with hair follicles and sebaceous glands.
|
|
|
|
Apocrine sweat glands have what type of epithelium? where are they located near? What type of secretion?
|
simple cuboidal. near hair follicles, merocrine.
|
|
|
|
The Ducts of Eccrine sweat glands have what type of epithelium.
|
Stratified cuboidal epithelium
THE ONLY EXAMPLE! |
|
|
|
What is the only example of stratified cuboidal epithelium in the body?
|
Ducts of the Eccrine Sweat Glands.
|
|
|
|
The bladder and urethra have wht type of epithelia
|
Transitional epithelium
|
|
|
|
The pancreas performs what type of secretion. Endocrine or exocrine?
|
Both Islet of langerhans is endocrine.
The pancreatic acinar cells are exocrine. |
|
|
|
Where does apocrine secretion occur?
|
The secretory breast (lipids not proteins)
|
|
|
|
Sebaceous glands secrete by what mechanism?
|
Holocrine (Whole cells) Dead cells.. not ejaculation
|
|
|
|
E-cadherins are part of what junction?
|
The intercellular component of intermediate junctions.
|
|
|
|
What is the largest chemical gradient in a simple cell membrane?
|
Calcium 18,000 extracellular to 1 intracellular.
|
|
|
|
True or False: Channel gated transports are All or None.
|
True.
|
|
|
|
Are carrier proteins active transport or passive transport?
|
Both.
|
|
|
|
Which is faster, channels or carriers?
|
Channels
|
|
|
|
Which can transfer against gradient? Channels or carriers?
|
Carriers
|
|
|
|
Why can't you learn form osmosis?
|
Because knowledge is not water.
|
|
|
|
hypotonic refers to low concentration in the cell or in the surrounding solution.
|
The solution. this means water will rush into the cell and POP!
|
|
|
|
Does active transport require ATP?
|
No. for example, Light driven does not.
|
|
|
|
What is required for p-type transporters?
|
phosphorylation of the enzyme
|
|
|
|
What is the predominant anion intracellularly?
|
Protein.
|
|
|
|
Why is adenosine transport essential for homeostasis...
|
No building blocks = no ATP = no active trasnport = Na/K inbalance = death.
|
|
|
|
What is the fundamental excitable element in all living cells?
|
Ion Channels.
|
|
|
|
What are the two properties of ion channels?
|
Selectivity and Gating
|
|
|
|
What are the 4 types of ion channels?
|
1.) Leak
2.) Voltage Dependent 3.) Ligand Gated 4.) Epithelial |
|
|
|
Which ion channels have sponteaous open and closure? They control the resting membrane potential.
|
Leak Channels
|
|
|
|
What type of ion channels are involved in salt and water transport in the lungs GI and kidney?
|
Epithelial ion channels.
|
|
|
|
What type of ion channel is most associated with modern diseases?
What do they do? |
Epithelial Ion channels. They are involved with salt and water transport in lungs GI, kidney etc.
|
|
|
|
If a 15 year old boy has a seizure with a history of fainting during exertion. He has a normal EEG, but is taking benedryl for allergies. His father also has a history of fainting. CAT scan shows normal heart anatomy. What could be wrong?
|
Long QT interval
|
Hint: the next test is an EKG on a treadmill? It shows a characteristic result |
|
|
What does the QT interval measures. What is the normal length?
|
Time between start of ventricular contraction and repolarization. It is typically 300ms long.
|
|
|
|
EEG measuyres what?
|
Electrical activity of the brain
|
|
|
|
EMG measures what?
|
Electrical activity of muscle
|
|
|
|
What is the log of 1
|
0
|
|
|
|
If a cell was only permeable to potassium what would its resting potential be? (NERNST potential)
|
-94Mv
|
|
|
|
What is the resting cell membrane potential?
|
around -80mV
|
|
|
|
What is the nernst potential for sodium?
|
+66
|
|
|
|
What major cell ion is passively controlled?
|
Chloride. (it is active in some cells)
|
|
|
|
Myotonia Cogentia
|
Disease of chloride channel in skeletal muscle (CIC-1)
-leads to inability for a muscle to relax. |
|
|
|
The GHK equation does what?
|
It weighs gradients and solubility of ions and determiens a potential.
|
|
|
|
What ion channels are responsible for action potentials?
|
Voltage Gated Ion channels.
|
|
|
|
The voltage gated sodium channel opens at what potential?
|
-55mV (roughly)
|
|
|
|
Slow voltage gated potassium channels close at what potential?
|
anything more positive than -40... but it opens and closes slowly.
|
|
|
|
An issue with opening of slow potassium channels could cause what major syndrome?
If a sodium channel has issues closing this will also occur. |
Long QT syndrome
-symptoms include fainting and seizures. Genetic Link. |
|
|
|
What leads to directionality of signal down an axon?
|
Refractory periods due to inactivation caused by slow potassium channel closing (hyperpolarization)
|
|
|
|
Multiple sclerosis
|
myelin degeneration causes inefficient signal transduction.
|
|
|
|
The neuromuscular junction contains what type of ion channel?
|
Ligand Gated ion channels.
|
|
|
|
How is calcium involved in the neuromuscular junction.
|
Voltage gated ion channel allows calcium to rush into the cell, leads to release of neurotransmitter.
|
|
|
|
Myasthenia gravis
|
Decrease in nicotinic receptors via autoimmune reaction. - This leads to weakened muscular contraction.
|
|
|
|
Cystic fibrosis affects what type of ion channel?
|
Epithelial Ion channel
- A chloride Channel on the lumenal side. The chloride pulls sodium and water which acts as a mucus lubricant/solvent. Without chloride you get viscous mucus which cannot be pulled out by cilia. (INFECTION!) |
|
|
|
Somatic System controls what?
|
Skeletal Muscle
|
|
|
|
What systems are below the level of consciousness?
|
Enteric and Autonomic
|
|
|
|
What are the 2divisions of the autonomic nervous system?
|
Sympathetic - (Thoraco/Lumbarl)
Parasympathetic - (cranial/sacral) |
|
|
|
Which cranial nerves participate in the parasympathetic innervation?
|
III - oculomotor
VII - Facial IX - Glossopharyngeal X - Vagus 3,7,9,10 Oooo! feel girls vagina! Rest digest and sex |
|
|
|
Sympathetic neurons have a what relative lengths of pre and post ganglionic neurons.
|
Short pre-ganglionic, long psot ganglionic.
|
|
|
|
Parasympathetic neurons have a what relative lengths of pre and post ganglionic neurons.
|
long pre ganglionic, short post ganglionic.
|
|
|
|
Which neurons are myelinated in the autonomic nervous system.
|
Only the preganglionic neurons.
|
|
|
|
Name the neurotransmitter in the somatic nervous system.
|
AcetylCholine
|
|
|
|
Name the neurotransmitters of the Autonomic Nervous system.
|
Acetyl Choline
Norepinephrine Vasoactive Intestinal Protein (PS) Neuropeptide Y (S) ATP (S) |
|
|
|
Vasoactive Intestinal protein is a neurotransmitter involved with parasympathetic or syumpathetic innervation.
|
Parasympathetic.
|
|
|
|
Peripheral Plexus
|
Very common in sympathetic autonomic innervation.
-lots of branching means that one ganglia can reach many targets. |
|
|
|
Cholinergic means?
|
the neurotransmitter is acetylcholine
|
|
|
|
alpha and beta receptors use what neurotrasmitter?
|
Norepinephrine
|
|
|
|
What is unique about autonomic and somatic afferents?
|
They travel together!
|
|
|
|
Do most organs receive sympathetic or parasympathetic innervation.
|
Most get both!
|
|
|
|
The adrenal gland is innervated by sympathetic, parasympathetic or both?
|
Only sympathetic. No parasympathetic innervation
|
|
|
|
Sympathetic innervation or parasympathetic innervation predominates in the vasculture and ventricle?
|
Sympathetic.
|
|
|
|
The pupil has two types of muscle name them... how are they innervated?
|
Circular = parasympathetic
Radial = sympathetic |
|
|
|
Sympathetic stimulation in the pupil causes dilation or contraction?
|
Dilation!
|
|
|
|
Mydriasis
Miosis |
Mydriasis = pupillary dilation.
Miosis = pupilary constriction |
|
|
|
Muscarinic = what neurotransmitter?
|
AcetylCholine.
|
|
|
|
How many muscarinic receptors are there?
|
5 (we are focusing on M2 and M3
|
|
|
|
All adrenergic receptors are what type of receptor?
|
G-Protein receptors.
|
|
|
|
Mydriasis mnemonic?
|
D stands for dialation
|
|
|
|
Miosis mnemonic
|
Cell division makes things get smaller... constriction. Awful mnemonic
|
|
|
|
Where is acetyl Coenzyme A made?
|
Mitochondria
|
|
|
|
Where is choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) located?
|
Cytosol
Acetyl CoA is synthesized in mitochondria and released to the cytosol to undergo the transferase reaction with choline. |
|
|
|
Where are Muscarinic junctions.
|
smooth muscle, on glands, psot ganglionic parasympathetic neural effectorjunction
|
|
|
|
Where are nicotinic junctions?
|
Ganglia and skeletal muscle.
|
|
|
|
Where are cholinergic
|
Neuromuscular , post ganglionic parasympathetic, neuraleffector, autonomic ganglionic junction
|
|
|
|
Acetylcholinesterase forms what?
|
acetate and choline - choline is recycled!
|
|
|
|
Autoreceptors
|
Negative feedback mech which responds to its own signal
|
|
|
|
Heteroreceptor
|
modulates signalling via different signals.
|
|
|
|
if acetyl cholline gets into the blood stream, how can it be broken down?
|
Plasma Cholinesterase
|
|
|
|
Nicotinic receptors are what kind of receptor?
|
Ionotropic - ion channels!
|
|
|
|
almost all innervated organs are M3 What is M2?
|
The heart.
|
|
|
|
Muscarinic receptors are what type of receptor?
|
G-protein
|
|
|
|
M3 activates what secondary messengers.
|
Phopsholipase C (PLC)--> diacyl glycerol (DAG) --> Tris Inositol phosphate (IP3) --> ER and SER --> increased calcium ---> contraction
|
|
|
|
M2 activates what?
|
Potassium channels.
|
|
|
|
Tyrosine is used to create what neurotransmitters?
|
DOPA --> Dopamine --> Norepinephrine --> Epinephrine
LAst three are the catecholamines. |
|
|
|
What are the 3 major catecholamines?
|
Dopamine, Norepinephrine, Epinephrine
|
|
|
|
What are the adrenergic receptors in the heart?
What are the nictonic receptors in the heart? |
Adrenergic = predominantly beta
Nicotinic = predominantly M2 |
|
|
|
How is norepinephrine cleared?
|
Reuptake via active transport
|
|
|
|
What does cocaine do?
|
It blocks reuptake of norepinephrine
|
|
|
|
Monoamine oxidase catabolizes what?
|
Catecholamines
|
|
|
|
What type of receptor is an autoreceptor for norepinephrine?
|
alpha 2 (also beta 2)
|
|
|
|
What type of receptor is an autoreceptor for muscarinic receptor?
|
M2
|
|
|
|
What is the pacemeaker of the heart?
|
SA node
|
|
|
|
What is the main excretory form of norepinephrine? (to be removed from the body)
|
VMA
|
|
|
|
Pheochromatoma
How is it detected in practice |
Tumor which makes catecholamine and causes high blood pressure
Detected by high levels of VMA |
|
|
|
In the neuron which happens first to epinephrine/norepinephrine?
MAO or OMT |
MAO
|
|
|
|
In the blood what happens first int he degradation of epinephrine/norepinephrine?
|
OMT (O-methyl transferase)
|
|
|
|
What receptor gives excitatory responses in the heart
|
B1 and B2
|
|
|
|
What receptor gives inhibition in the smooth muscle?
|
B2
In the heart it is excitatory. There is no B1 in smooth muscle |
|
|
|
The Alpha 1 receptor is a Gq, Gi, or Gs?
|
Gq
|
|
|
|
The Alpha 2 receptor is a Gq,Gi,or Gs
|
Gi
|
|
|
|
The beta receptor is a Gq,Gi, or Gs
|
Gs for B1,B2,B3. (G2 and G3 can also act as Gi)
|
|
|
|
The principle secondary messenger for the beta receptor is?
|
cAMP
|
|
|
|
The principle signalling for the alpha 1 receptor is?
|
Phospholipase C or an increase in calcium influx form outside to inside
|
|
|
|
The alpha 2 receptor does what through its Gi mechanism?
|
Inhibits cyclic AMP
|
|
|
|
Which iris associated muscle receives sympathetic innervation?
|
Radial
|
|
|
|
Which iris associated muscle receives parasympathetic innervation?
|
Sphinter (Circulary Muscle)
|
|
|
|
contraction of the sphinter does what to the pupil?
|
Constricts
|
|
|
|
Contraction of the radial muscle of the eye does what to the pupil?
|
Dilation
|
|
|
|
What is the pathway of norepineprhin activation of alpha 1?
|
Phospholipase C --> IP3 + DG --> Ca2+ influx --> Contraction
|
|
|
|
Parasympathetic innervation of the eye is what type of receptor?
|
M3
|
|
|
|
Sympathetic innervation of the radial muscle occurs through what receptor?
|
alpha 1
|
|
|
|
blood supply to the eye could be reduced via what type of neurotransmitter?
|
Norepinephrine on endothelial alpha 1 receptors
|
|
|
|
Mydriasis
|
Dilation
|
|
|
|
What happens to the pupil if you stimulate sympathetic nerves?
|
Dilation
|
|
|
|
What happens to the pupil if you activate an alpha 1 receptor?
|
It will dilate due to the contraction of the radial muscle.
|
|
|
|
What happens to the pupil if you activate an M3 receptor?
|
It will constrict due to the tightening of the circular muscle.
|
|
|
|
The cilliary muscle is primarily innervated by parasympathetic or sympathetic innervation?
|
Parasympathetic?
|
|
|
|
Parasympathetic stimulation of the cilliary muscles provides what?
|
Accomadation for near vision. This produces tone and reduces tension on suppensitory ligaments which rounds the lens.
|
|
|
|
How does the sympathetic innervation affect vision using the ciliary muscle?
|
It doesnt... it is parasympathetic only.
|
|
|
|
What happens to a secretory gland when activated by the parasympathetic nervous system?
|
It increases secretion.
|
|
|
|
What is the pacemaker of the heart?
|
SA Node
|
|
|
|
how does innervation differ between beta 1 and beta 2 in the heart? Which predominates?
|
They both do the same thing (activate) but beta 1 predominates
Epinephrine activates B2 but norepinephrine does not. Both activate B1 |
|
|
|
Chronotroppic (what receptor in the heart triggers this?)
|
Increase in rate (symopathetic beta 1)
|
|
|
|
Ionotropic
|
Increased contraction (sympathetic beta 1)
|
|
|
|
Dromotropic
|
Increased conduction (sympathetic beta 1)
|
|
|
|
what muscarinic receptor predominates in the heart? Is it parasympathetic or sympathetic?
|
M2 - parasympathetic
|
|
|
|
How significant is parasympathetic innervation in the His purkinje system and the ventricles?
|
Only slight.
|
|
|
|
What receptor is in every blood vessel? What happens when it is activated?
|
Alpha 1 - it causes vasocontriction.
|
|
|
|
What receptor is important in skeletal muscle vasculature?
|
Beta 2
|
|
|
|
What is the difference between epinephrine and norepinephrine?
|
Epinephrine stimulates beta2 receptors while norepinephrine does not.
Both stimulate alpha 1 the same. |
|
|
|
Beta 2 receptor activate leads to what?
|
relaxation/ dilation
|
|
|
|
CAMP in smooth muscle does what? In heart muscle?
|
Triggered by Beta 2
Smooth Muscle = relaxation Heart Muscle = contraction |
|
|
|
Most blood vessels do not contain parasympathetic except one type. What is it?
|
Genitalia blood vessels. (and salivary glands)
|
|
|
|
There is no direct parasympathetic innervation ont eh genitals. how does parasympathetic innervation give its effects.
|
Activates a muscarinic receptor (M3) which makes Nitric oxide. NO activates guanylate cyclase which synthesizes cGMP which relaxes smooth msucle.
|
|
|
|
how does viagra work?
|
It blocks the phosphodiesterase which breaks down cGMP.
|
|
|
|
a g protein in the genitals which activates PLC would do what?
|
constrict = antiboner
|
|
|
|
Mast cells do what to endothelial cells?
|
Vasoconstriction
|
|
|
|
Muscarinic receptors on MAst cells lead to what?
|
Vasoconstriction via increased histamine release.
|
|
|
|
Blood vessels are predominantly sympathetic or parasympathetic? What is the exception?
|
Sympathetic, but erectile tissue is both.
|
|
|
|
in the stomach and intestines, what is the reaction to parasympathetic innervation?
|
Contraction and anything that promotes digestion. (sphincters are relaxed.)
|
|
|
|
What is the reaction to sympathetic innervation in the GI tract.
|
Relaxation... and anything that slows digestion. (sphincters are contracted)
|
|
|
|
alpha 1 receptors are activated by what?
|
norepinephrine and epinephrine
|
|
|
|
If westfall asks about teh gallbladder...
|
tell him he is a lying POS
|
|
|
|
What do the Juxtaglomerular cells do?
|
Secrete Renin (beta 1) --> leads to aldosterone release and smooth muscle constriction --> water and salt retention --> increased BP
|
|
|
|
What activates the release of renin? Where?
|
Norepinephrine hits a beta 1 receptor in the juxtaglomerular cells.
|
|
|
|
What does ACE do?
|
converts Angiotensin 1 to angiotensin 2?
|
|
|
|
How does the beta 1 receptor lead to vasoconstriction?
|
Renin --> angiotensin I --> angiotensin 2 --- + Ang2 receptor.
|
|
|
|
What would an Ace inhibitor do physiologically?
|
lower blood pressure
(Interferes with Renin Angiotensin Pathway) |
|
|
|
Ang 2 increases blood pressure by what 3 mechanisms?
|
Vasoconstriction, Aldosterone secretion, norepinephrine release enhanced.
|
|
|
|
Renin regulationis parasympathetic or sympathetic? Name the receptor.
|
Sympathetic (B1)
|
|
|
|
What contracts the detrusor muscle? Parasympathetic or Sympathetic Innervation
|
Parasympathetic
|
|
|
|
What relaxes the detrusor? (innervation system + Receptor)
|
Sympathetic (B2)
|
|
|
|
What contracts the trigone sphincter? Where is this located?
|
alpha 1 Sympathetics. This occurs int he urinary bladder.
|
|
|
|
Is the prostate somatic or autonomic?
|
Somatic
|
|
|
|
BPH affects what?
|
the prostate
|
|
|
|
Boner = ? Ejaculation = ?
|
boner = parasympathetic
Ejac = sympathetic |
|
|
|
What are the two types of sweat glands?
|
Eccrine and apocrine
|
|
|
|
Which sweat glands regualte temperature?
|
Eccrine
|
|
|
|
Which sweat glands produce odors after their excretions are degraded?
|
Apocrine
|
|
|
|
Eccrine sweat gland uses what transmitter?
|
AcetylCholine - M3
|
|
|
|
Apocrine sweat glands are activated by what?
|
Sympathetic Adrenergic - Alpha1
|
|
|
|
Syncope
|
Sudden Loss of Consciousness due to temporary disruption of cerebral oxigenation
|
|
|
|
List the 4 most common causes of Loss of consciousness
|
1.) Syncope
2.) Seizure 3.) Head Trauma 4.) Metabolic Drugs |
|
|
|
1.) Sudden onset of syncope
2.) tend to occur in older patients with cardiac disease 3.) also seen in cardiomyopathy and hypokalemia or hypocalcemia 4.) Unrelated to Posture |
Ventricular Arythmia
|
|
|
|
1.) Precipitated by exertion or emotional stress
2.) Can be fatal 3.) Family history? |
Long QT syndrome leading to ventricular arythmias
|
|
|
|
1.) palpitations, chest pains, dyspnea
2.) Posture a factor 3.) |
Supraventricular Arythmia
|
|
|
|
Prodromal
|
symptoms presenting before the main syndrome
|
|
|
|
dyspnea
|
shortness of breath
|
|
|
|
1.) History of cardiac problems
2.) exercise intolerance / fatigue |
Bradyaryhtmia
|
|
|
|
Accompanied by chest pain, neck pain, shoulder pain, epigastric pain, and or dyspnea
|
Acute Myocardial infarction
|
|
|
|
1.) caused by hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy or idiopathic hypertrophic subaortic stenosis or aortic valvular stenosis
2.) associated with exertion 3.) prodromal symptoms typically absent unless there is tamponade which will worsen when lying down |
Cardiac Outflow obstruction.
|
|
|
|
Sudden death in athletes is likely 1 of which 2 syndromes?
|
Long QT or Cardiac Outflow Obstruction
|
|
|
|
what is the msot common cause of syncope
|
Vaso-vagal
|
|
|
|
Caused by increase in parasympathetic tone witha withdrawl of sympathetic tone.
1.) Sweaty 2.) Nausea 3.) blurred or faded vision 4.) fear or emotional stress trigger 5.) Heat hugner or prolonged standing contribute |
Vaso-Vagal
|
|
|
|
1.) going from laying to sitting or standing.
2.) condition worsens in elderly 3.) risk worsened in dehydration. |
Orthostatic Hypotension
|
|
|
|
1.) rythmic movements of extremities and/or stiffening
2.) period of altered consciousness after episode |
Seizure (syncope usually has consciousness return fully and quickly)
|
|
|
|
If you see someone get clocked... and they pass out...
|
Head trauma.
|
|
|
|
hypoglycemia is very uncommon unless it is caused by this?
|
MEtabolic/Drugs
(in this case insulin overdose) |
|
|
|
Case:
24yr old Episode of fainting - scrubbing in to OR - felt sick -went blurry -woke up later - heart was racing - felt warm - felt fine after waking up - first time it has ever happened - did not eat breakfast - no medications - 10s episode |
Vaso Vagal (very low chance - Long QT = take an EKG)
|
|
|
|
21yo male - intense basketball game - dizzy before fainting - no jerky movements or stiffening - no head injury - revived quicky - no previous symptoms in history - healthy before - no cardiac disease or sudden death in family.
Murmur present - ECG shows large ventricle |
Cardiac outflow obstruction - - Idiotrophic cardiomyopathy
(Long QT possible but less likely) |
|
|
|
9y.o girl passes out on playground, not revived, no family history, no preceding symptoms. What could it be? What should you do?
|
Long QT - Perform EKG on family members
|
|
|
|
If a 9y.o girl dies and you suspect she had Long QT what should you do?
|
Check the family! (EKG) you can prevent the family from getting one too (it is genetic)
|
|
|
|
16y.o female - history of fainting in gym class. What should you look for?
|
VasoVagal - orthostatic hypertension - Long QT - *Pregnancy* - *Anorexia* - *Drugs*
* = 16y.o |
|
|
|
Grey matter is msotly what?
|
Cell Bodies
|
|
|
|
Deep Grey matter is typically what?
|
Deep Nuclei - called ganglia but are nuclei
|
|
|
|
Are Ganglia in the brain nuclei or ganglia?
|
Nuclei
Ganglia only exist in the PNS. |
|
|
|
White matter is mostly what?
|
Myelinated tracts of axons.
|
|
|
|
Dark Purple (basophilic) staining in neuronal cell bodies is typically?
|
Nissl Substance
|
|
|
|
The meshwork of fibers around a cellbody containing support cells and dendrites is called the
|
Neural Pill - stains pink!
|
|
|
|
With H and E - Very round small hyperchromatic nuclei no visible cytoplasm
|
Oligodendrocytes
|
|
|
|
With H & E - large more vesiclular nuclei with still no visible cytoplasm
|
Protoplasmic astrocytes.
|
|
|
|
In EM - oval shaped cell with more nucleus than cytosol - occurs within vicinity of myelinated axons.
|
Oligodendrocytes
|
|
|
|
Endoneurium surrounds?
|
individual axons
|
|
|
|
Perineurium covers?
|
Fascicles of axons
|
|
|
|
Epineurium covers?
|
Blood vessels and myelinated bundles
|
|
|
|
In neuronal damage, what is the role of Epi, peri, and endoneurium? What is unique about the CNS
|
They act as guides for regeneration. Does not occur in CNS
|
|
|
|
what is the msot numerous cell ina peripheral nerve?
|
Schwann Cells
|
|
|
|
The bubbly material along the neurofilament is what?
|
Myelin
|
|
|
|
A connective tissue stain gives a brownish appearance and makes what visible?
|
nodes of ranvier. - where schwann cell sheathes meet.
|
|
|
|
OsO4 has a great affinity for what?
|
Membranes and lipids
|
|
|
|
To look at myelination alone with no cellular components. What would you use to prep?
|
Osmium tetroxide (Os04)
|
|
|
|
How many schwanna cells are there per axon per internodal segment
|
1 (roughly .1mm)
|
|
|
|
Why does MS suck so much?
|
It affects oligodendrocytes which affects mutliple axonal segments.
|
|
|
|
where is cytosol seen in the schwann cell?
|
perinodal segments, inner and outter collar, as well as cleftsdof schmidt lanterhans
|
|
|
|
does a schwann cell always myelinate its associated axon?
|
no
|
|
|
|
Where are unmyelinated axons seen?
|
Autonomic nervous system
|
|
|
|
The overlap of schwann cells are called?
|
PAranodal segments.
in the PNS there are neurolemmocyte processes with a basal lamina covering them all. |
|
|
|
Schwann cell cytoplasm occurs in what 4 areas.
|
PErinodal
Clefts of schmidt -Lanterman Inner Collar Outter collar |
|
|
|
In the PNS there are little cells which are basically only nuclei which surround the perikaryon. What are they?
|
Satellite cells.
|
|
|
|
A Collection of nerve cell bodies in the PNS is called what?
|
Ganglia
|
|
|
|
Neuralmelonin
|
gives a gold color to neuron cell body. Present in nerve cells that secrete catecholamines ( epinephrine, norepinephrine, or dopamine) as transmitters.
|
|
|
|
Protoplasmic astrocytes are associated with what matter?
|
Gray matter
|
|
|
|
Fibrous astrocytes are associated with what matter?
|
White matter
|
|
|
|
What is the phagocytic cell in the CNS?
|
Microglia
|
|
|
|
Rod or cigar shaped nucleus with little cytoplasm. Will contain things common to CNS on EM.
|
Microglia
|
|
|
|
Astrocyte feeet contribute to what major alliteration? Waht do they do?
|
Blood Brain Barrier. They maintain chemical mileu.
|
|
|
|
A chemical synapse's orientation can be determined by?
|
noting that vesicles are on the presynaptic side.
|
|
|
|
An electrical synapse looks different from a chemical synapse by:
|
No visible polarity. - The cells are very close together (no synaptic cleft)
|
|
