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142 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
What are some major environmental and social issues of our time?
-Climate change
-Wars (central asia, norht africa)
-poverty (drought)
-over exploitation of resources
-world's major economies built on shaky foundations (capitalist consumerism that emphasises infinite growth/resources; impossible on a finite planet)
-energy crisis - fossil fuels running out
What are three things that landscape ecology must take into account?
ecology, scientific framework, people as part of the environment.
What are the three parts of a framework suitable for studying landscapes?
Structure, function and change.
What is structure?
The characteristics and elements that make up a landscape.
What is function?
What the interactions between different spatial elements/charactistics are and how the landscape works.
What is change?
The ways in which the landscape is changing through time and how those changes affect structure and function.
What are some examples of structure?
Patch size/shape/type
Ecotones
Connectivity
Heterogeneity
What are some examples of function?
Animal movement
Water and nutrient flows
Patch dynamics
Metapopulation dynamics
What are some examples of change?
Disturbance regimes
Habitat loss and fragmentation
Climate change
What is landscape ecology concerned with?
Landscapes that are usually kilometers across
areas that are heterogeneous in composition
What does L.E seek to understand?
Structure, function and change in the landscape.
What are some core themes of landscape ecology?
 the spatial pattern or structure of landscapes, ranging
from wilderness to cities,
 the relationshipp between ppattern and pprocess in
landscapes,
 the relationship of human activity to landscape pattern,
process and change,
 the effect of scale and disturbance on the landscape
How does Forman define the term 'landscape'?
‘a mosaic where the mix of
local ecosystems or land uses
is repeated in a similar form
over a kilometres‐wide area
What is the difference between landscape and ecosystem?
Landscape is a spatial unit
Ecosystem ‐ the plant and animal communities
in a given place and the abiotic components of
the environment with which they interact.  An
ecosystem is not size‐dependent
What are the two types of scale referred to in L.E?
Spatial and temporal
why is LE important?
-It addresses the use of land at a human scale, many of the current issues of society are to do with the use of land.
-It is holistic in nature, landscape is more then the sum of its parts, integrative approach (how does landscape function)
-provides an ecological overview
What are some natural processes that determine landscape pattern?
Climate;  Geomorphology ‐ topography, underlying geology, processes of soil formation
Colonisation and speciation of plants and animals;  Disturbance regimes
What are the 5 conceptual approaches to understand landscape?
-island biogeography
-patch/corridor/matrix paradigm
-land mosaics
-species-specific (habitat contour model)
-historical ecology
What are the two main factors that determine the number of species on an island?
Extinction of species present on an island
Colonisation of species to an island
What is the equilibrium model of island biogeography?
http://web2.uwindsor.ca/courses/biology/macisaac/55-437/lecture10/MWBASIC.JPG
The number of species present on an island is represented on the graphy where the lines representing the rate of immigration and the rate of extinction meet.
What is colonisation dependant on?
depends on how isolated an island might be.
i.e. close to a source area, then more colonists arrive, distant
from a source, then fewer colonists likely to arrive.
What is extinction dependant on?
Extinction depends on the size of an island.  
If it is large, then more likely to support a large population of
a species, which is less likely to go extinct.  If it is small, then
it’s likely to support only a small population, which has
greater chance of going extinct
What are the 5 main conclusions from the equilibrium theory of BG?
-there is a significant relationship between species richness and area
-there is a dynamic equilibrium number of species on an island
-at equilibrium, small islands support fewer species then large islands
-at equilibrium, distant islands will support fewer species then near islands
-colonisation and extinction are dynamic processes resulting in "turnover" in the composition of species on an island
What is the patch/corridor/matrix paradigm?
A framework for analysing landscapes by using structural features
-patch any type of relatively homogenous area that differs from its surroundings
-corridor - linear strips that differ from adjacent land uses
-matrix - the background ecosystem or land use in the landscape
What are the limitations of the patch/corridor/matrix paradigm?
Can be interpreted as a ‘binary’ view of the
landscape (habitat vs non‐habitat)
• The The matrix matrix isis not not aa single single entity entity
• Species’ distributions may not correspond to how we
perceive patches   
What are the types of properties of whole mosaics?
• Extent of a particular habitat
• Composition
‐ richness, diversity of habitat types
• Configuration of habitats habitats
‐ patch size distributions
‐ patch shape
‐ aggregation or dispersion
• Environmental variation
‐ geographic location
‐ position along an environmental gradient
What is the habitat contours model?
A species centred approach that takes into account that different species perceive the landscape in different ways and at different scales and that they nmay not respond to human defined landscape structure (eg patches)
-considers the landscape as a species specific contour map
-contours represent different levels of value or quality for the organism concerned
What is historical ecology?
“Historical ecology has been cited as a
new paradigm in which ecologists view
ecosystems and landscapes as
historically and and spatially spatially influenced influenced
non‐equilibrium systems that are
complex and open to human inputs.”
What are som hypotheses of historical ecology?
‐ Spatial patterns of remnants are the result of previous
human land‐use decisions and interactions with the
biophysical environment
‐ Historical land tenure is a strong predictor of disturbance
history, and consequently of current ecosystem conditions
‐ Some species may now depend on current or future
anthropogenic disturbances for their persistence
‐ A history of human disturbance has created a range of distinct
and sometimes novel ecosystem states
What are the limitations of island BG?
a) habitat isolates not islands (differences in movement through surroundings, other species and processes in
surroundings)
b) deals with species richness only – treats all species equally as one species
c) does not address variation in habitat diversity or land use or management within islands or habitat isolates
How do spatial scales occur as a hierarchy?
They are not independent.

Processes or events that occur in a particular
spatial element are linked to:
• nearby elements at the same spatial scale (interactions)
• encompassing elements at a higher level
(tend to control what happens at the level we are observing)
• component elements at a finer level
(help to explain what happens at the level observed)
What are spatial scales for a laughing kookaburra?
Geographic range
forest stypes occupied
selection of nest tree and hollow
What are some different types of patches?
-natural patches (eg mountains, wetlands)
-remnant patches (forest fragments)
-regenerated patches (eg reveg in farmland)
-introduced patches(pine plantations, shopping centre)
-disturbance patches (fire, landslide)
What are the main properties of patches?
size, shape, perimeter length, composition, context
What properties of patches can we relate the incidence or % occurence of a species to?
patch size
type of patch
How does the incidence or % occurrence of a species change in relation to patch size?
We could look for
-a possible threshold level for occurence
-differing types of response curves (increase in frequency with size, no change in frequency, decrease in frequency with size)
Different patterns of occurence (incidence functions) are sometimes used to group species into categories such as
large patch species
edge species, interior species
remnant dependent vs open country species
What are patterns and processes?
a) Pattern ‐ species show different patterns of occurrence in relation to the size of patches
             ‐ we can use ‘incidence functions’ to show the pattern of occurrence
                e.g. species that increase or decrease as patch size increases
             ‐ we can use this to group species into categories of response that reflect differential  
                vulnerability to habitat change and different habitat use (eg. edge vs interior)
b) Process ‐ demography, population ecology help to understand the processes that determine
patterns in patches.  Case study examples with small mammals in western Victoria (Greg Holland)
c) Change through time.  Characteristics of species most likely to disappear from patches
      ‐ best correlate (Laurance) was tolerance to the surrounding land use   Process
-mechanisms influencing pattern
-help understand why the patterns occur
-eg population processes
What is the general rule of the species-area relationship?
As area increases, the number of species increases.
What is the basis for the species-area relationship?
-passive sampling
-habitat diversity effect
-population size effect
What are the implications of the species-area relationship?
• Loss of habitat leads to loss of species
•• Rate Rate of of change change (species (species accumulation accumulation or or species species
loss) greater for smaller areas
• Time‐lag effect when habitat is lost
– ‘faunal relaxation’ or  ‘ecosystem decay
Why is the composition of communities not random?
-area requirements differ
-habitat and environmental requirements
-land management or disturbance effects
What is the nested subsets concept?
Patches with fewer species tend to have a subset of the species
present in patches with many species
What causes a nested pattern of occurrence?
• AAppears tto bbe dd t i d etermined bby extiti ti nctions
• Species ‘drop out’ in a predictable sequence in
patches
• Assumes:
– all species had opportunity to be present
– extinction is primarily area‐driven
What are some examples of linear features for each of the following patch types?
Natural - stream
Remnant - roadside verge
Regenerated - reveg along a creek
Planted - a road
Disturbance - a linear strip of fire
What are the main roles of linear features, particularly roads?
-habitat
-filter or barrier
-conduit
-source/sink in relation to surroundings
What are some characteristics of road systems?
shape
position
geographic distribution
spatial extent occupied by roads
What are some ecological processes in roadside vegetation?
Plant-animal interactios
host-parasite relationships
-predation
-competition
-nutrient cycling
How do road systems act as barriers/filters?
-physical barrier to movement (hard, bare, open surface)
-effects from sounds, lights, emissions
-alteration to wetlands and waterflows
-roadkills
How are road systems a conduit for movement?
-road surface movements
-roadside veg, daily foraging, seasonal, dispersal, range expansion
-people and vehicles using roads - accidental transportation of animals, seeds, spores etc
How are road systems a source/sink of biotic and abiotic effects?
-physical and chemical pollution from vehicles
-hydrological effects
-biota moving between road and adjacent land
What are 3 mechanisms creating boundaries?
-patchy physical environment
-natural disturbance
-human activities
What are some examples of how boundaries can move and change?
Snow line
Lake levels
flood lines
regrowth/regen of a cleared area

species ranges
deserts/desertification
Give one example of a scale on the local, landscape and regional/geographic scale
-logging coupe, farmland, road
-valley and slopes
-physiogeographic boundaries, countries, bioregions
What are the 5 main functions of boundaries?
-habitat
-filter
-conduit
-source
-sink
How do boundaries act as a filter or barrier?
Boundaries influence flows (of species, materials, wind, energy, water, nutrients) between landscape elements.
They function as a filter of varying permeability (partial, complete, none) for different organisms.
How does the shape and composition of boundaries affect flows?
convoluted, complex boundaries are likely to maximise flows and hence interactions between landscape elements while straight, simple boundaries will minimise flows.
What causes edge effects?
Abiotic factors - light, solar radiation, wind, temp, humidity
Biotic factors - changes in
-species composition
-species behaviour
-competitive interactions
What are some positive aspects of the edge effect?
-provision of habitat
-access to multiple resources
-modify flows (eg filtration, raised contours on slopes)
What are som land use planning issues concerning rivers?
-erosion/stream bank protection
-water quality for humans and stock
-riparian vegetation
-fish populations and minimum flows
-effects of dams, weirs and impoundments
-managing pollutants and effluents
-flood control and management
What are the 4 key processes that influence structure and function in stream systems?
-hydrologic flows (volume, frequency of flows and the chnages in each over time)
-particle flows (sediment, sand, gravel, changes structure thru deposition)
-animal activities (domestic livestock, beavers, degrade riparian veg, erosion, nutrient input)
-human activities (dams, water extraction, channeling)
What are some different types of habitats in streams?
-aquatic (fast flowing, deep, shallow, snags etc)
-stream bank (trees, root systems)
-floodplain (pools, marshes, riparian)
What role do streams play in landscape connectivity?
‐ high level of natural connectivity, connectivity of different habitats (aquatic, riparian veg, aerial zone etc)
‐ movements associated with water flow (gravity) ‐ with the flow, against the flow (rheotaxis)
Boundary effects are complex – exchanges in the longitudinal (downstream) , lateral (e.g. flood plains) and
vertical dimensions-flows (with and against gravity)
-corridors at landscape, regional and bioregional scales
What is the source function of streams?
-floodwater onto plains
-temporal habitats for frogs/waterbirds
-stimulates productivity in floodplains
what is the sink function of streams?
Riparian veg
-traps silt, soil and the nutrients attached to them
-holds nutrients in soils or plant biomass
-holds water and slowly releases it (modifies hevay flows/floods)
-wetlands, billabongs etc trap materials so they settle before reaching the waterway
What are some context factors (influence of the surroundings) that could affect a patch?
1. changes in microclimate (radiation, albedo, energy balance) (wind - flow and speed, erosion) (water - evapotranspiration, surface water, groundwater)
2. Biogeographic changes
(isolation - spatial and functional)
(change in the biota in the surrounding landscape - invasive species, interactions with natives)
What are some scenarios where land managers would need to plan for whole landscapes?
-catchment management authorites
-managing disturbance eg fire
-planning for landscape restoration
In these (large scale management) types of scenarios, what are some common features and understandings that land managers need to be aware of?
-landscape level understanding of mosaics
-land mosaic as a single entity not individual patches
What are emergent properties of whole landscapes?
properties of the landscape as a whole that differ from the properties of patches/components of the landscape
What are some properties of land mosaics?
-extent of habitat (sum total spatial area of all ppatches of habitat)
-composition (types of different elements and their relative properties)
-configuration of the land mosaic; the spatial arrangement of elements (eg aggregation, average patch shape, degree of subdivision)
What are the key points relating to faunal responses to mosaics?
• Total amount of suitable habitat (age‐class, veg type) is a
key influence
• No evidence of threshold responses
• NoNo evidence evidence that that diversity diversity of of age age‐classes classes isis important important (at (at
the scale studied)
• Environmental gradients and climate important for some
groups (especially reptiles)   
What are the major vectors for ecological flows thru the landscape?
1.water
-flows downhill
-groundwater flows
-transpiration and hydrologic cycle
2. wind
-dust, smoke, particles
-seeds, spores
-drifting invertebrates
3. animals
-local movements btwn elements
-within landscape or region
-between regions
4. human activities, machinery etc
What is the conceptual and the practical importance of landscape connectivity?
conceptual - ecological flows and movement of species are critical
to landscape function
practical - much active interest and practical involvement in
retaining, protecting and establishing ‘corridors
What is connectivity?
Ter m used to describe how the spatial arrangement and
quality of elements in the landscape affect the movement of
organisms among habitat patches
At aa landscape landscape scale: scale:
“the degree to which the landscape facilitates or impedes
movement among resource patches”
(Taylor et al. 1993)
High connectivity ‐ individuals can move freely
Low connectivity ‐ individuals are constrained
what are the two components of connectivity?
• Structural ‐ physical spatial arrangement of habitat, including
number number of of gaps gaps, distance distance toto move move, alternative alternative pathways pathways etc etc
• Functional ‐ response of individuals and species to structure.
eg. habitat requirements, response to predators, scale of
perceiving the environment
What are the two ways that connectivity can be achieved?
1.  Manage the whole landscape
2.  Managge sppecific habitats for connectivity
‐ corridors
‐ stepping stones
When is managing the whole landscape likely to be effective when trying to achieve connectivity?
– large part of the landscape is in natural form
– species have a high level of tolerance to existing land uses
When is managing specific habits (corridors) when trying to achieve connectivity likely to be effective?
– large part of the landscape is modified
– species depend on undisturbed or natural habitat
– the goal is to maintain continuity of populations,
communities and ecological processes
When is managing specific habits (stepping stone habitats) when trying to achieve connectivity likely to be effective?
– species regularly move between resource patches
– species are relatively mobile in relation to the distance
between ‘steps’
– species are relatively tolerant of disturbed landscapes
HOw do animals move through linkages?
• Single direct movement
• Movement by single animal, punctuated by pauses of
dd ff iffering ddurations
• Multiple movements and gene flow through a population
resident within the linkage
What are some examples of corridors and connectivity?
Crossing local barriers
Local networks of habitat corridors
Linkages at the landscape and regional scale
Biogeographic linkages
What are the key points of crossing local barriers?
• Humans have imposed many local barriers in the
landscape
• A range of structures can assist in enhancing
connectivity (tunnels, underpasses, overpasses)
• Effectiveness of these structures does not justify more
barriers
What are the key points concerning local networks of habitat corridors?
• fencerows, roadsides, streamside vegetation etc can be used
for local movements by animals
• thhese h bi habitat networkks are usedd iin diff different ways (h bi (habitat,
direct movement etc)
• different types of use may correspond with different
requirements for linkage structure
• local networks of linkages enhance connectivity of the overall
population
What are hte key points concerning landscape level links?
• ‘Corridors’ now frequently being retained as part of land use
planning
‐ forest management areas
‐ linking conservation reserves
• Corridors being established as part of re‐creating networks of
habitat in rural environments
What are the key points concerning biogeographic linkages?
• Migratory pathways and ‘stop over’ points
• birds of prey
• waders and waterbirds
• migratory passerines
what is the trigger in deserts?
water
• inputs of water as rainfall in arid landscapes are infrequent,
variable in amount, and unpredictable in space and time
• dry periods and drought are common ‐ the system is triggered
into activity by rainfall
• rainfall triggers primary productivity, growth and increased
biomass
• if the trigger event occurs and there is no response, there is a
strong indication that the landscape is dysfunctional
What is an example of a trigger?
Rainfall is the primary ‘trigger’ in deserts,
which have been described as ‘water‐
controlled ecosystems’
What is transfer?
the horizontal redistribution of materials across the
landscape (mainly by wind and water)
What is reserve?
• where the rain water and its load end up
• ‘storage’ part of the landscape
• water and nutrients withdrawn from the reserve by
organisms of all kinds
Reserves are the ‘patches in the landscape
– groves of trees amidst open areas
– small clumps of shrubs, fallen timber
– clumps of grass, individual tussocks
Run‐off comes from the bare inter‐patch areas
What is pulse?
Plants and animals use a wide variety of adaptations to
remain alive during dry times, waiting for the trigger events
that will stimulate a pulse of activity.  e.g.
– soil seed bank
– lignotubers
– deep root systems
– dry out (lichens, mosses)
– reduce foliage, slow or halt metabolism
What does the size of the pulse depend on?
level and availability of resources
What do most organisms require before a pulse can occur?
a threshold level of resources
What are some response mechanisms?
Ploughbacks - what goes into the reserve (eg seeds, organic matter)
Feedbacks - what goes back to build patches
What can feedback through new plant growth contribute to?
– structure of patches
– capacity to trap resources
– the overall transfer of water and nutrients across
the landscape
What are the two main types of landscape losses?
outflows
offtake
What are outflows?
when the rate of run‐off exceeds the capacity of
the landscape to trap and store water and materials.
Outflows of water through drainage lines, creeks, rivers are
vital to the functioning of the wider arid landscape
What is offtake?
when consumers within the system are harvested
and taken elsewhere (e.g. livestock, feral animals, wool)
Why has focus, in the lndscape function model, been placed on water and nutrients?
‐ they are the basis of primary productivity
‐ essential to retain them in the landscape
((if lost,, pp y rimary pp y roductivity affected))
• water ‐ relatively rapid movement/transfer
(rainfall, run‐off, evaporation, transpiration)
• nutrients ‐ relatively slow  
(accumulation in biomass, decomposition, uptake)
What regulates transfer of water and nutrients in the landscape?
terrain ‐ shape, roughness, slope
vegetation ‐ clumps and patchiness trap flows
What happens to production pulses?
1. feedback to landscape structure
ploughback toto the the reserves reserves
2. offtake and loss to the system
What are the types of consumers that have to cope with the pulsed plant production?
‐ fire
‐ invertebrates (e.g termites, locust swarms)
‐ vertebrates (mostly mammalian herbivores)
native = macropods
introduced = domestic stock, feral animals
In a disfunctional landscape what does excessive grazing lead to?
– loss off thhe reserve
– loss of patch structure (capacity to trap resources)
– reduced capacity to respond to the next rainfall (trigger
event)
Can a particular land type maintain landscape function under
grazing?
• If not ‐ ensure an alternative land use
• Iff so ‐ ensure stocki king rates are suffi i l fficiently llow thhat
landscape function is maintained in the long term
“ The fundamental ecological cost of pastoralism is the breakdown in self
maintenance of rangeland landscapes caused by excessive total grazing
pressure at the wrong times and places
What can the land manager do in the landscape function model?
Land manager can not control the trigger (i.e rainfall).  
Point of control is through regulating consumption and
the balance between off‐take and feedback/ploughback
Achieved through:
• active management of stocking rates to maintain patch
structure and small scale patchiness
• monitoring landscape structure through time
What is required for applied landscape ecology?
Understanding the relationship between landscape structure
and function can lead to more sustainable land use
What is the landscape function model for arid ecosystems?
Arid and semi-arid ecosystems occupy 75% of the continent, distinctively different to mesic woodlands and forests
Framework for understanding ecosystem function developed in a landscape ecology context, with focus on soils,
nutrients, water, primary productivity etc
How do consumers cope with ‘pulsed’ production in the natural environment?
capacity to digest grass
body size
dietary composition
low maintenance (metabolic rate)
water conservation
rapid reproduction
What does movement depend on?
• landscape structure
– arrangement of landscape elements
(structural connectivity, connectedness)
• landscape composition
– relative proportion and nature of landscape elements
• species attributes
– mobility; ability to use different landscape elements;
ability to cross boundaries
What are isolated/subdivided populations?
Species occupying natural isolates (e.g. rocky outcrops)
Species with specialized requirements occupying localized
habitats
Populations in remnant habitats within developed
landscapes
Consequence of habitat fragmentation
What are some threats to isolated populations?
• Size of population
• Deterministic processes
– external disturbances
(e.g. habitat loss, degrading processes)
• Stochastic (chance) processes
– demographic stochasticity
– genetic stochasticity
– environmental variation
– natural catastrophes
What is a metapopulation?
A set of distinct local populations that interact with each
other through occasional movement of individuals (i.e. a
‘population of populations’) is known as a ‘metapopulation’.
What are some typical properties that a metapopulation would display?
• occasional extinctions of local populations
• re‐colonisation of empty habitat by dispersers
(occupation (occupation  extinction extinction  rere‐‐colonisation colonisation == ‘turnover turnover’
or ‘blinking’)
• stability of the overall set of populations
• species (i.e.the metapopulation) persists in the landscape
through time
What are the assumptions of the metapopulation model thingy?
• Discrete patches of ‘habitat’ contrast with ‘non‐habitat’
(analogy with island biogeography)
• All ‘habitat’ is equal; therefore population size increases
proportionally with patch size
• Ability to move through ‘non‐habitat’ decreases with
increasing distance
In the metapopulation model, what is local extinction primarily influence by?
population size
What is the stability of a metapopulation determined by?
the probabilities of local extinction and re-colonization
What is the classic metapopulation model?
– Cluster of local populations, each
with finite probability of
extinction
– Not Not all all patches patches permanently permanently
occupied
– Size of each local population
determines probability of local
extinction
– Isolation of each local population
determines probability of
colonization
What is the island-mainland model of metapopulation?
‐ A large mainland population
provides a source of colonists
for surrounding local
populations
‐ The surrounding local
populations may regularly
experience extinction, but
unlikely to occur for the
mainland
what is the patchy population model of metapopulation?
– No mainland population
– Movement between patches is
soso frequent frequent that that local local extinction extinction
does not occur
– Single ‘dynamic’ population
What is the dysfunctional metapopulations model?
– No mainland population
– No movement movement between between patches patches
– Existing as multiple discrete
populations
– No re‐colonization
– Multiple local extinctions 
regional extinctio
Wht are 4 types of animal movements?
– permanent long‐term dispersal
– short term excursions outside
home range
– movements between remnants
within home range
– movements within single
remnants
Describe a typical metapopulation
• Set of discrete populations
• Each population has a likelihood of extinction
• Movements occur between local populations, facilitating
“rescue rescue” and and rere‐colonization colonization events events
• Extinctions and colonisations within populations
(i.e. ‘blinking’ of local populations over time)
• Overall set of populations persist through time
What is the source-sink metapopulation model?
‐ Variation between habitat
patchesin resource quality /
productivity
‐ Differences inin population population
demography
‐ Source population produces
excess offspring
‐ Sink population maintained
by immigrants from source
population
What are some potential attributes of populations in large fragments?
‐ higher density
‐ older age‐structures
‐ more potential immigrants
‐ more likely to recruit adults
‐ more predictable reproductive patterns
What is landscape complementation?
• Non‐substitutable (different)
resources located in different
patches
• Both resources required by a
species species toto meet meet itsits needs needs
• Movement through the
‘matrix’ is implied
• Landscapes with diverse
resource patches more
suitable – larger populations
What is landscape supplementation?
• Species uses multiple
patches of similar type in
the landscape
• Organisms supplement
resource intake by using
nearby patches
• Again, movement through
the ‘matrix’ is implied
What are some different types of change?
• ‘Natural’ change to vegetation and communities
• ‘Natural’ disturbance processes that change landscapes
‐ disturbance events
‐ successional changes
•• Anthropogenic Anthropogenic change change toto the the land land
‐ types of transformation
‐ trajectories of change
‐ rapidity of change
‐ global land transformation
‐ spatial patterns of change
‐ optimum transformation?
‐ social and cultural change to landscapes
What is an example of resource change - seasonal and cyclic?
Eucalypt flowering
Flowers seasonally but also there is often marked annual variation from no flowering to heavy flowering.
With the example of eucalypts, give some examples of successional change
how long will it take for there to be
-fflowers and nectar
-large trunks for foraging
-logs on the ground
-tree hollows
What are some natural abiotic changes that can affect landscape structure?
Major disturbance events bring about landscape change
followed by ecological succession
‐ fire
‐ hurricanes
‐ floods
‐ tsunamis
‐ severe frost
etc
They influence the composition (e.g. age structure of different
patches) and spatial configuration (e.g. size, shape of patches)
of the landscape  
What are some natural biotic changes that can affect landscape structure?
Changes to the landscape brought about by living organisms
(also result in disturbance and succession)
e.g.
‐ diseases that affect forest trees
‐ animals that act as ‘ecosystem engineers’
‐ invasive plants that alter vegetation structure
What are the major types of land transformation by humans?
• Removal  (e.g. mining, urban development)
• Replacement  (e.g. cropping, pine plantation)
• Utilization  (e.g. rangeland pastoralism, forestry)
• Conservation  (e.g. parks and reserves)
What are the trajectories of change?
Cyclic
‐ structure changing but remains in same state
‐ shifting mosaic of land uses
(e.g. production forest, cultural farmlands)
Directional
‐ landscape structure changing from one state to
another (e.g. conversion of forest to farmland;
conversion of farmland to urban)
‐ may be potentially irreversible (in practical terms?)
What is meant by time lag?
there is a time
delay in experiencing the
full consequences of an
action
What is an extinction debt?
refers to
the number of species
likely to decline and
become (locally) extinct as
a consequence of past
changes
What are some issues regarding extinction debt?
• Some empirical examples documented
• Current level of extinction debt not well known
‐ how longg does decline take?
‐ how much further loss can we expect?
‐ which species will be most vulnerable to loss?
• Can we predict it (and therefore be proactive in landscape
planning)?
What does intensification mean for farmland landscapes?
-loss of fine scale heterogeneity
-greater crop areas
-more chemicals
-more mechanisation
-less diverse habitats for birds
-less food resources
What is fear and loathing in predator interactions?
Loathing: Top predators actively persecute mesopredators, often
without eating them
Fear: Mesopredators strongly motivated to avoid interacting with top
predators; restrict their habitat use (landscapes of fear)
How do landscapes of fear affect individuals
to ecosystems
• Habitat avoidance and/or increased vigilance by prey species can
result in significant costs
e.g. increased physiological stress, reduced feeding times and food
quality = lower reproductive output and survival
• Such effects caused by predators may cause behaviourally‐
mediated trophic cascades (flow‐on effects through food
webs/chains)
e.g. herbivores reduce browsing of plants, predators impact prey less
due to fear/avoidance of other predators
What happens to ecological processes when species
are lost lost from from landscapes?
• Substantial declines of bilbies and burrowing bettongs
• Both may dramatically affect ecosystem processes
(soil fertility and seedling germination)
What are some components in creating a sustainable environment?
• a balance of ecological and human dimensions
• an optimal spatial arrangement of elements
• a time‐frame of human generations
• a focus on slowly changing attributes
• relatively objective assays to measure sustainability
(ecological integrity, basic human needs)
A focus on slowly changing attributes?
Many of the critical attributes that shape long‐term
sustainability (or lack of it) of the environment are slow‐
changing: attributes that change at the scale of human
generations.  These are likely to be the factors most important
in determiningg what the lives of yyour children and
grandchildren will be like.
• Environmental ‐ eg. soil formation and loss, age
structure of forests, changes in biodiversity, energy
sources and availability
• Human ‐ cultural change, social values, religious
expression, land ownership patterns    
How do we assess whether land use is sustainable?
Whether ‘ecological integrity’ (productivity, soil, water) and ‘basic human needs’ (food, water, health, housing, energy, culture) are
sustained over generations.