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170 Cards in this Set

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Define MESENCHYME:
-generalized embryonic cells that become adult connective tissues.
(Mobile)
Define FIBROBLAST:
-a cell that secretes collagen and elastic fibers.
(Mobile)
Define CHONDROBLAST:
-a young cell that secretes collagen fibers and a cartilage matrix.
(Mobile)
Define CHONDROCYTE:
-a mature cell that secretes collagen fibers and a cartilage matrix.
(Immobile)
Define OSTEOBLAST:
-a young cell that secretes collagen fibers and a calcified matrix.
(Mobile)
Define OSTEOCYTE:
-a mature cell taht secretes collagen fibers and a calcified matrix.
(Immobile)
Define OSTEOCLAST:
-a group of FUSED cells (a syncytium) that reabsorbs a calcified matrix.
(Mobile)
How does the composition of BONE divide up?
1/3 Organic
2/3 Inorganic
Composition of Bone-
1/3 Organic includes:
1. Cells
2. Collagen
3. Glycoproteins
Composition of Bone-
2/3 InOrganic includes:
1. Calcium Phosphate
2. Calcium Carbonate
3. Sodium Salts
4. Magnesium Salts
5. Other Cation Salts
Composition of Bone-
Calcium Phosphate = Hydroxyapatite Crystale (Apatite)
INITIALLY Desposits as:
[Ca3 (PO4) 2]
(thin bone)
Composition of Bone-
Calcium Phosphate = Hydroxyapatite Crystale (Apatite)
GRADUALLY Develops as:
[3Ca3 (PO4) 2 Ca (OH)2]
(thick bone)
Composition of Bone-
Calcium Phosphate = Hydroxyapatite Crystale (Apatite)
FYI:
As stresses on a bone increase, it becomes DENSER!
What occurs during a BREAKDOWN OF BONE?
- Reabsorption
- decalcification
- demineralization
- decrystalization
the Breakdown of Bone is performed by a cell known as:
OSTEOCLASTS
What occurs during a BUILDUP OF BONE?
- deposition
- calcification
- mineralization
- crystallization
the Buildup of Bone is performed by a cell known as:
OSTEOBLASTS
BREAKDOWN OF BONE also occurs when:
(3)
- stress is removed from bones.
- the blood caclium levels are low.
-occurs due to the action of osteoclasts
BUILDUP OF BONE
also occurs when:
(3)
- stress is applied to bones.
- the blood calcium levels are high.
- due to the action ofosteoblasts and osteocytes.
Characteristic of Cartilage and Bone -
Parameter: MATRIX
CARTILAGE: Chondroitin Sulfate (organic)

BONE: Calicium Phosphate (inorganic)
Characteristic of Cartilage and Bone -
Parameter: BLOOD SUPPLY
CARTILAGE: diffusion (indirect)

BONE: capillaries (direct)
Characteristic of Cartilage and Bone -
Parameter: NERVE SUPPLY
CARTILAGE: None

BONE: Neurons (direct)
Characteristic of Cartilage and Bone -
Parameter: GROWTH RATE
CARTILAGE: Slow

BONE: Fast
Characteristic of Cartilage and Bone -
Parameter: REPAIR RATE
CARTILAGE: Slow

BONE: fast
Characteristic of Cartilage and Bone -
Parameter: GROWTH MODE
CARTILAGE: Interstitial & Appositional

BONE: Appositional only!
Characteristic of Cartilage and Bone -
Parameter: MEMBRANE
CARTILAGE: Perichondrium

BONE: Periosteum
Growth Stages of Cartilage:
1. Interstitial
Interstitial: inner cells divide inward to expand new cartilage from within.

a.) Mesechyme cells accumulate, enlarge and become chondroblasts.
b.) Chondroblasts divide and secrete matrix cartilage.
c.) Perichondrium forms around the developing cartilage.

*Internal Expansion* - New cartilage is added to the inside.
Growth Stages of Cartilage
2. Appositional
Appositional: mitosis of cells of the perichondrium add new outer layers.

a.) New chondroblasts develop on the inside of the perichondrium.
b.) Matrix is deposited on the surface of original cartilage.

*New cartilage is added to the Outside margin*
Growth Stages of Cartilage
3. Calcification
(very selective in its application)
Calcification: Calcium salts invest the cartilage matrix.

a.) Calcium salts are deposited in matrix around chondrocytes.
b.) Chondrocytes die leaving a hardened calcified cartilage matrix. (NOT BONE!)
Compact bone resists ________.
Compression
Spongy Bone resists ________.
Tension
What does both Cartilage and Bone require to grow?
Collagen fiber template. The deposition of the Matrix.
_______ are the nly cells capable of reabsorbing a calcified Matrix.
Osteoclasts.
Reabsorption steps of the Osteoclasts:
(3)
1. Osteoclasts move int a Calcified Matrix.
2. Osteoclasts erode the calcified matrix.
3. Osteoblast follow the Osteoclasts laying down bone.
During Ossification, a Hollow Tube of Bone replaces the solid _______.
Cartilage Rod.
Intramembranous Ossification is also known as:
Direct, Membrane, or Dermal Bone Formation.
Endochondral Ossification
6 steps.
1. Fetal Hyaline cartilage model develops.
2. Cartilage calcifies and a periosteal bone collar forms around diaphysis.
3. Primary ossification center forms in the diaphysis.
4. Secondary ossificatin centers form in epiphyses.
5. Bne replaces cartilage, except the articular cartilage and epiphyseal plates.
6. Epiphyseal plates ossify and for epiphyseal lines.
Endochondrial ossification is also known as:
Indirect, Intracartilaginus, or Cartilage replacement bone formation.
Maturing of a _______ increases in size through ____ _______ depositing new ut layers while _______ inner layers of bone.
Long bone; Appositional Growth, Reabsorbing.
Ossification times are influenced by:
Nutrition and Relative Health.
Which Vitamins are essential in proper bone growth?
1. Vitamin A
2. Vitamin C
3. Vitamin D3
Bone Growth:
Vitamin A
- activates Osteoblasts
- too little retards bone growth
Bone Growth:
Vitamin C
- absorbic acid
- Promots collagen production
- too little retards collagen fiber development
Bone Growth:
Vitamin D3
- Promotes absorption of Ca and Phosphate into blood; helps w/ calcification of bone.
- too little does not allow absorption of Ca from small intestine.
Why is the PITUITARY essential in proper Bone Growth?
- it secretes Growth hormone. Stimulate growth of epiphyseal disks.
Why is the THYROID essential in proper Bone Growth?
- it secretes Calcitonin. Stimulates Ca deposition.
- Stimulates bone growth by stimulating metabolic rate of osteoblasts; to little thyroid hormone results in short stature.
Why is the PARATHYROID essential in proper Bone Growth?
- it secretes Parathyroid Hormone. Stimulates Ca reabsorption.
- Increases blood calcium levels by encouraging bone resorption by osteoclasts.
Why are GONADS essential in proper Bone Growth?
- they secrete sex hormones which stimultate calcification.
- stimulate osteoblasts; promote epiphyseal plate growth and closure.
Define RICKETS:
softening of bones in children
Define OSTEOMALACIA:
softening of bones in adults
Define OSTEOPOROSIS:
development of enlarged openings in bones.
Define OSTEOMYELITIS:
microbial infection fo the soft tissue of bones.
(pathogen= staph aureus)
Define OSTEITIS DEFORMANS (Paget Disease):
Viral infection causes sporadic osteoblast and osteoclast activity, resulting in softening and rehardening of the skeleton. Gnarled bones develop.
4 General TYPES of Fractures:
1. Simple
2. Compound.
3. Incomplete.
4. Complete.
Describe a SIMPLE Fx:
- Closed
- Broken Bone does NOT pentrate the skin.
Describe a COMPOUND Fx:
- Open
- one or both ends of the broken bone pierce the overlying skin and body tissues.
Describe an INCOMPLETE Fx:
- Partial
- closed, partial of bone is broken.
Describe a COMPLETE Fx:
Closed but the bone is completely fractured and broken.
Describe a GREENSTICK Fx:
- common in children.
- Partial Fx, one side f bone breaks - the ther is bent.
-Fx @ Rt. angles to the long axis of the bone.
Describe a COMMINUTED Fx:
- results from falls.
- bone is splintered into several small peices between the main parts.
- Linear
- Fx is parallel to the long axis of the bone.
Describe a TRANSVERSE Fx:
- Results from Side Impacts
- similar to Greenstick Fx.
Describe a SPIRAL Fx:
- results from twists
- aka Displaced
- Fx bone parts are out f antaomic alignment
- Fx sprials around axis of long bone; results from twisting stress.
Bone Fx can be caused by:
Traumatic injuries or pathologic infection.
Steps in Fracture Repair:
1. A fracture hematoma (procallus) forms. (clots the blood)
2. A fibrocartilage callus forms. (joins the seperated bones)
3. A bony callus replaces teh fibrocartilage callus. (First spongy bone, then compact bone forms to the outside)
4. The Bony Callus is thicker than the surrounding bone. The bone is remodeled.
Function of Joints as Levers.
Joints provide the body with:
1. Strong Motion
2. Rapid Motion
3. Versatile Motion
4. Posture
..... w/ a minimum force.
What are the 3 types of Joints?
1. Synarthroses (Fibrous)
2. Diarthroses (Cartilaginus
3. Synovial (Synovial Capsules)
Describe SYNARTHROSES joints and name the 2 types:
- immobile.
- joints connected by fibers.
1. Syndesmoses
2. Sutures
Syndesmosis:
-connects distal ends of tibia and fibula.
Sutures:
connect skull bones.
Describe AMPHIARTHROSES (cartilaginous) and name the 2 types:
- slightly movable. Joints connected by cartilage.

1. Synchondroses
2. Symphyses
Synchondroses:
connect ribs to sternum w/ hyaline cartilage.
Symphyses:
connect vertabrae or pubic bones w/ fibrocartilage.
Describe DIARTHROSES (synovial) and name the 6 types:
- Freely movable. Joints enclsed w/ in synovial capsules.

1. Ball and socket
2. Hinge
3. Pivot
4. Planar
5. Saddle
6. Condyloid
Ball and socket:
humerus to glenoid.
femur to acetabulum
Hinge:
humerus to ulna (elbow)
Pivot:
humerus to radius.
Planar (gliding):
joins carpals
Saddle:
joins thumb metacarpal w/ carpals
Conyloid:
joins metacarpals to phalanges
What is Bursae?
Fluid filled pads connected to synovial capsules
What are the functions of Bursae?
1. Extend the volume of synovial cavities.
2. Ease the motion of Bones at a point.
3. Ease the motion of Muscles at a joint.
4. Buffer and Protect joints.
What is Bursitis?
Inflammation of Bursae due to overuse.
What is a Tendon?
Dense, Regular connective tissue set w/ in a synovial covering (tendon sheath)
What are the functions of Tendons?
1. Connect muscle to bone
2. Connect muscle to muscle
What is Tendonitis?
Inflammation of the Synovial Membranes of a Tendon due to overuse.
What is Carpal Tunnel Syndrome?
Results from compression of the median Nerve due to overuse of Finger Flexors.
The ______ joint is the most heavily constructed joint.
Knee
Define DISLOCATION:
Seperate and displace bones (fall)
Define SPRAIN:
stretch or tear a ligament without dislocating bones.
Define ARTHRITIS:
Swollen, painful, inflamed joint. ( group of diseases )
Define OSTEOARTHRITIS:
Articular cartilage disintegrates. A rough bone to bone contact is made. This erodes the cartilage.

Cx: aging, excessive use
Define RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS:
Synovial Membrane inflames. Synovial membrane thickens. Articular Cartilage becomes fibrocartilage.

Cx: unknown. Virus? bacteria? Genetic? Immune response disorder? (wbc's involved)
What are the 3 classes of Levers?
1.) Class I - triceps brachii
2.) Class II - Gastrocnemius
3.) Class III - Biceps Brachii
Long Bone Structures:
1. Develop along lines of stress.
2. Compact bone develops along compression lines.
3. Spongy Bone develops along tension lines.
4. Long bones develop sfrom three bones that eventually fuse together.
(epiphysis & diaphysis)
5. Bones require a direct blood supply, so they are highly vascularized.
6. Bone marrow develops within internal cavities.
Compact Bone Structures:
1. Osteons develop along lines of compression.
- Comumns of compact bone resist compression.
2. Osteons develop around central canals.
3. Lamellae form a shell around the outer bone.
4. Perforating canals penetrate compact bone to supply central canals
5. canaliculi link cntral canals to osteocytes.
Osteon Structures:
1. Central Canals develop along lines of compression.
2. Osteons develop around central (haversian) canal.
3. Osteocytes live in lacunae.
4. Lamella form around the central canal.
5. Canaliculi link osteocytes to the central canal.
Spongy Bone Structures:
1. Trabeculae develop along lines of tension near the epiphyses.
-trabeculae (collagen) resists forces that would pull the bone apart.
2. Spaces fill w/ Red Marrow for making blood cells.
Describe Periosteum and Endosteum:
-both are made of dense irregular connective tissue w/ cells.
- periosteum is attached by perforating collagen fibers.
Levers operate to ______ the _____ of a joint or increase its range and _____ of movement.
increase; strength; speed
Low Gear Muscles:
brings MAXIMUM strength to bear.
(overcomes Inertia and Initiates movement)
-semimembranosus
High Gear Muscles:
- Brings MINIMUM strength to bear.
(propagates momentum and continues mvement)
-gluteus maximus
How does Bone know where to Grow according to Wolf's Law?
Bone grows in response to mechanical stress. Noticed a tendency for bone to develop to counter stresses.
How des Bone know where to Grow according to Yasuda?
Stimulated bone growth using electricity. Noticed bone grew around negative electrodes.
How does Bone know to grow?
PIEZOELECTRICITY:
-electricity produced by a crystal under pressure.
- it is the electric current generated by compressing r tensioning the calcium phosphate crystals of bone that directs bone growth.
-The bone growth develops along the lines of force, proportional to the charge that is generated.
- (negative charges stimulate the osteocytes and osteoblasts)
-(positive charges stimulate osteoclasts)
Accelerated repair of broken bones is routinely performed by attaching _______ and passic ______ ______ down the long axis of the damaged bone.
electrdes; electric current
What is an exampe f the Piezoelectric effect?
Abnormal bone growth stimulated by grinding of ones teeth.
Bone is dynamic and develps accrding to the forces that are brought _____ it.
against
Long bones develop _____ bone to resist compressive forces.
compact bone
Long Bones develop _____ bone to resist tensile forces.
spongy bone
Characteristics of Skeletal Muscle fibers:
long
multicellular
peripheral nuclei
transverse striations
Skeletal Muscle components in order from large to small structures:
1. Muscle
2. Fascicle
3. Fiber
4. Myofibril
5. Sarcomere
Skeletal Muscle components
smaller structures:
1. Fascia
2. Epimysium
3. Perimysium
4. Endmysium
5. Sarcolemma
6. Sarcoplasm
7. thick sarcomere
8. thin sarcomere
Organization of skeletal muscle:
Bundles within bundles.
1. Epimysium (outer)
2. Perimysium (middle)
3. Endomysium (inner)
What are Skeletal Muscle Fiber and Skeletal Muscle Fascicles seperated by?
Connective tissue sheaths.
Relaxed Sarcomere:
Wide "H" zone
Partly contracted sarcomere:
Narrower "H" zone
Fully contracted sarcomere:
No "H" zone
Circular Skeletal Muscle:
(orbicularis muscles)
Sphincter muscles. Surround openings.
Radiate Skeletal Muscle:
(Pectoralis major)
Muscles w/ intermediate strength and versatility.
Parallel (Longitudinal) Skeletal Muscle:
(Rectus abdominis)
Muscle fibrs attach parallel to tendon.
Unipennate Skeletal Muscle:
(extensor digitorum)
Fibers attach at oblique angle to ne side of tendon.
Bipennate skeletal muscle:
(Rectus femoris)
Fibers attach obliquely to both sides of tendon.
Strongest muscles arrangement.
Multipennate Skeletal Muscle:
(Deltoideus)
Fibers attach to several tendons within a muscle.
Isometric Contraction:
- Muscle CONTRACTS but does NOT SHORTEN.

(Resistance of the object iexceeds the tension of the muscle) Resistance > Tension
Isotonic Contraction:
- Muscle CONTRACTS and SHORTEN

(Resistance of the object is LESS THAN the tendon f the muscle) Resistance < Tension
Eccentric Contraction:
Muscle contracts and LENGTHENS
(external force stretches out the contracting muscle)
Actions of Skeletal Muscle:
AGONIST
(Prime Mover)
A muscle whose action results in a specific movement
(eg. biceps brachii is the agnist that causes flexion of the forearm)
Action of Skeletal Muscle:
ANTAGONIST
A muscle whose actin oppose an agonist's actions.
(eg. triceps brachii is the antagonist of the biceps brachii)
Action of Skeletal Muscle:
SYNERGIST
A muscle that assists the agonist in its action.
a. (eg. brachialis is a synergist with the biceps brachii in flexing the forearm)
b. (eg. felxors and extensors of the hand are synergists in stabilizing the wrist when flexing or extending the digits, fixator muscles)
Motor Units:
1. Muscle fibers are organized into functional motor units:
(one neuron activates several to many muscle fibers.)

2. For finer muscle movements:
One neuron contacts few muscle fibers.
(extrinsic eye muscle) = 1 neuron 2 muscle fibers

3. For stronger muscle movements:
(Gastrocnemius) = 1 neurn, 2000 muscle fibers
the "ALL or NONE" Principle
When a muscle fiber contracts, it does so w/ maximum force. There are NO partial contractions. It gives everything it has or it will NOT contract at all.
TROPOMYOSIN
Blocks the joining of myosin's head with actin's binding site.
CALCIUM
Binds w/ Troponin to remove the tropomyosin block.
ATP during Muscle cell activities:
Breaks the Actin-Myosin bond and cocks the myosin head.
Where is calcium stored in skeletal muscle fiber?
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
Action Potentials:
NEUROTRANSMITTER
- Chemical secreted by a neuron that influences the sodium pump and sodium gates. (e.g. actylcholine =ACh)
"Lock and Key" mechanism:
1. ACh fits into ACh receptors.
2. Sodium (Na) pump turns off.
3. Sodium (Na) Gates open.
4. Sodium rushes into the cell. Seen as a Nerve impule or action potential.
5. Cholinesterase deactivates ACh to prevent excessive stimulation.
Relaxed "Polarized" Cell
-Sodium Ion pump ON
-Removes sodium Ions (+) from the interior to charge the chell.
-Results in a relaxed cell w/ a net negative interior.
Active "Depolarized" Cell
-Sodium Ion Pump "off"
-Sodium Ions (+) rush in along membrane creating an impulse.
=Action Potential
= Depolarization wave
-Results in an active cell with equalized charges.
-the cell must now be repolarized.
_________ shuts off the sodium Ion Pump and opens sodium gates.
Neurotransmitter.
What does the sarcolemma transport across the muscle membrane?
Sodium
What does the Sarcoplasmic reticulum transport across the skeletal muscle cell membrane?
Calcium
Resting Muscle Cell:
1. Sodium Pump "on" - moves sodium outside the cell.
2. Calcium Pump "on" - moves Calcium into the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum.
Active Muscle Cell:
1. Sodium Pump "off" - sodium rushes into the cell.
2. Calcium pump "off" - calcium rushes into myofibrils.
Energetic considerations of Muscle Fiber Contractions:
- there are between 5,000-10,000 myofibrils per muscle fiber.
- There are about 4,500 sarcomeres per myofibril.
-There are 1,000 thick filaments and 6,000 thin filaments per sarcomere.
- Each thick filament has about 300 myosin heads.
- each crossbridge that binds requires and ATP to cock and release it.
- each crossbridge binds many times during a muscle contraction.
Energetics of Muscle Contraction:
Making enough ATP to power sustained muscle fiber contractions.
Two Stages of Glucose Catabolism:
1. Anaerobic Stage
2. Aerobic Stage
Anaerobic Stage:
Glycolysis (performed without oxygen)
Aerobic Stage:
Krebs Cycle & ETS (performed with Oxygen)
Muscle Cells conditioning:
1. Muscle cells may be conditioned to become stronger or to have greater endurance.
2. Exercises that strengthen muscles tend to promjote the synthesis of more actin and myosin (forms new sarcomeres)
3. Exercises that promote endurance in muscles tend to promote the syntheses of mre myoglobin (stores more O2).
4. A conditioned muscle cell has rouhly twice the # of capillaries as a non-conditioned muscle cell.
a.) greater delivery of glucose and O2
b.) greater drainage of lactic acid from the cell.
Muscle Atrophy:
Reduction in the size of muscle due to prolonged disuse.
Muscle Cramps:
invlountary muscle contraction. Stimulus in not delivered from the brain. (low oxygen or calcium blood levels induce spontaneous firing of nerves)
Muscle Dystrophy:
-progoressive degeneration of muscle cells.
-increase in the amount of connective tissue.
-replacement of muscle tissue w/ adipose
-sex0linked genetic trait
Myasthenia Gravis:
-progressive muscle weakness
-interference at newromuscular junction.
-decrease in number of ACh receptors.
-ACh is deactivated before stimulating sarcolemma
-autoimmune disrder (treated w/ cholinerase inhibitors)
Action potentials of _____ neurons cause the release of _____ onto the Sarcolemma.
Motor; Acetylcholine.
The _____ ____ of the Sarcolemma is shut off which ______ the cell triggering internal activities.
Sodium Pump; depolarizes
_____ is released from the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum to remove the blocking protein tropomyosin.
Calcium.
Thin filaments will slide over _____ _____ once the blocking protein tropomyosin is removed.
Thick filaments.
Muscle cells have several specialized structures that are not found in other cells to allow them to store ______, store ______, and store additional ______.
oxygen, glucose, energy.
What are the 3 types of muscles?
1. Skeletal Muscle
2. Cardiac Muscle
3. Smooth Muscle
Characteristics and jobs of SKELETAL MUSCLE:
- anatomical syncytium.
- arranged as bundles.
- transverse striations.
- motor end plate.
- variable motor units (1:10 to 1:500)
- Primarily "voluntary"
- variable contraction rate (1/10 to 1/100 second)
Characteristics and jobs of CARDIAC MUSCLE:
- anastomosis (fans out)
- functional syncytium
- transverse striations
- intercalated disks
- pacemakers
- refractory period
- primarily "involuntary"
- slow contraction rate
(3/10 seconds)
Characteristics and jobs of SMOOTH MUSCLE:
- layers, constrictores or dilators
- no transverse striations
- closely packed
- pacemakers
- primarily "involuntary"
-slowest contraction (several seconds)
What are the two types of Smooth Muscle?
1. Single Unit (visceral) smooth muscle
2. Multi-unit (vascular) smooth muscle
Single-Unit (visceral) Smooth Muscle:
- activated by stretching, neurotransmitters, or hormones.
- found in the digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems.
- arranged as layers of circular and longitudinal muscle.
- perform tonic and perstaltic contractions.

Note: tonic muscle contractions are produced by circular muscle layer. Both Circular and longitudinal muscle layers combine to produce peristaltic contractions.
Multi-Unit (vascular) smooth muscle:
- activated by autonomic neurotransmitters.
- found in blood vessels and the iris of the eye.
- arranged as constrictors and dilators.
- perform vasomotor responses of vasoconstriction and vasodilation.
3 Muscle Types: BLOOD SUPPLY
Skeletal: Good
Cardiac: Excellent
Smooth:
-single unit: Poor
-multi unit: poor
3 Muscle Types: NERVE SUPPLY
Skeletal: Best
Cardiac: Poor
Smooth:
-single-unit: poor (pacemaker)
-multi-unit: good (autonomic)
3 Muscle Types: CONTRACTION RATE
Skeletal: fastest 1/100 sec.
Cardiac: slow 3/10 sec.
Smooth:
-single-unit: slowest
-multi-unit: slowest
3 Muscle Types: FATIGUE RATE
Skeletal: Fastest
Cardiac: Never
Smooth:
-single-unit: slowest
-multi-unit: slowest