Shooting For At Least A B Lol

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Developmental Psychology

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study of behavior throughout the life span

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Piaget's Theory (involving mental structure)

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Schema(see next definition)

Two Processes Children Use to Adapt:

*Assimilation

*Accommodation

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Schema

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a general idea used to organize the world and guide our behavior and expectations

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Assimilation vs Accommodation

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Assimilation - apply old schema to new experiences (ex: tiger > feline)

Accommodation - modify existing schema to create new schema to fit a new experience or problem

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Piaget's Stages of Development

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1) Sensorimotor Stage (birth - 2 years)

2) Preoperational Stage (~2 - 7 years)

3) Concrete-Operational Stage (~7 - 12 years)

4) Formal Operation Stage (~12 - adulthood)

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Sensorimotor Stage

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*behavior changes from reflexive behavior to primitive thought

*in early months - lack of object permanence

*begin to develop symbolic thinking

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Object Permanence

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ability to know an object exists even when it cannot be immediately sensed

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6(ish) Substages of Sensorimotor Stage

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...

...

4-10 months = separation anxiety

10-12 months = perceptual constancies (ex. object moving away retains original size)

12-14 months = seek for object where it was last seen

14 - __ months = symbolic thinking

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Preoperational Stage

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*rapid development of language ability and of the ability to represent things symbolically

*egocentric thought (children are not aware of environment; think mostly of themselves)

*lack of conservation (children do not understand that objects maintain their physical properties)

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Concrete Operational Stage

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*emergence of logical analysis, understanding of conservation, increase in empathy towards others, more complex cause and effect situations

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Formal Operation Stage

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*use of an essentially adult form of logic and symbolic representation; solving problems

*child learns to formulate a set of alternatives and to test these alternatives against reality

*self-consciousness- adolescent egocentrism

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Cognitive Disequilibrium(cause of cognitive development)

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results when children encounter unexpected feedback from the environment as their developing ability to explore brings them into contact with new concepts they cannot easily assimilate to their existing behavioral schemas

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Criticisms of Piaget

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1) Piaget did not always define his terms operationally; difficult to interpret significance of his generalizations

2) Piaget's theory underestimates the ability of young children

3) Studies lack proper controls/no actual experiments

4) Stops too soon; no post-formal operations

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Working Memory

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(short term memory) simultaneous storage and processing of info; declines with age

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Memory Changes

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*Semantic Memory(facts/general knowledge) - stays intact with age

*Episodic Memory (childhood memories stay intact;but problems retrieving/storing new episodes)

*Procedural Memory - stages intact

*Autobiographical Memory(very long term memory) remains quite good for old people

*Flashbulb Memory - remembered particularly well by old people

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Types of Intelligence

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Fluid intelligence- ability to perform mental operations

Crystallized intelligence- general knowledge that has been acquired

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Three Defining Characteristics of Skill

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1) level of proficiency on a specific task

2) actions are well organized

3) acquired through training and practice

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Reliability

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consistency of a test score

(based on correlation; closer correlation is to +1, more reliable the test score)

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3 Types of Reliability

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Test-retest - people take the same test on two different occasions and their scores are correlated

Alternate forms - two versions of test are given

Split-half - give on test, then divide the test into two halves and correlate the two halves (ex. odd vs even)

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Validity

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how well a test measures what you think it tests

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3 Types of Validity

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1) Content Validity - degree to which a test is representative of the domain it's supposed to cover

2) Predictive Validity - how well your test predicts future performance (ex. SAT)

3) Construct Validity - does the test measure the hypothetical construct of interest

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Intelligence

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goal directed, adaptive behavior

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History of Intelligence Testing

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1904: Alfred Binet w/ identifying French children w/ capacity to learn

IQ (Intelligence Quotient: Mental Age/Chronological Age x 100)

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Intelligence Quotient IQ

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*IQ is now determined by comparing one's score to a standardization sample of people your own age

*average IQ = 100, <70 = retardation, >140 = genius

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Levels of Retardation

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Mild (self-sufficient): 50 -70

Moderate (2nd grade level): 35-55

Severe (difficulty communicating): 20-40

Profound (some motor development): (<=25)

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Why Measure Intelligence?

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Educational Setting: 1) Screening and diagnosis(learning disabilities)

2) Selection and Placement (ex. AG)

3) Evaluation and research (test effectiveness of educational programs)

Medial Setting: measure cognitive ability after head injury

Military/Job Setting: see what jobs recruits should perform

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Dangers of Misuse of Intelligence Tests

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*Eugenics Laws of early 1900s

*Immigration laws

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To Prevent Misuse of Intelligence Tests

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1) Create fair tests(valid and reliable)

2) Understand the purpose of testing

3) Monitor test use

4) Use tests only for purpose for which they were developed

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g Factor Theorists

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Spearman

Cattell

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Spearman's g Factor

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a general factor that represents intelligence

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Cattell's g Factor

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argues that there are 2 components of the g factor:

*Fluid Intelligence(mental processing)
*Crystallized Intelligence(general info)

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Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children

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*Verbal scale (crystallized intelligence)

*Performance scale

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Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

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1) Analytical intelligence- evaluating, critiquing, or judging abilities(traditional view)

2) Creative intelligence- inventing, discovering, imagining

3) Practical intelligence- sizing up a situation

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Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

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1) Linguistic - communicating

2) Logical-mathematical - ability to solve problems and reason

3) Musical - perceiving/creating musical patterns

4) Spacial - perceive/mentally manipulate objects

5) Bodily-kinesthetic - control motor movements

6) Interpersonal - understand others and function well in social settings

7) Intrapersonal - ability to self-monitor

8) Naturalistic - noticing patterns and changes in environment

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Factors that contribute to Mental Retardation/Intelligence

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*Infection/intoxication (ex. alcohol consumption during pregnancy/lead poisoning)

*Trauma - physical abuse or accidental head injury

*Nutrition - severe malnutrition in early life

*Brain disease - meningitis

*Prenatal/perinatal factors - damage before/during birth

*Chromosomal abnormalities - presence of extra chromosome(downs syndrome)

*Other environmental factors - stimulus deprivation

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Misconceptions of Intelligence

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1) Intelligence tests measure innate intelligence(most tests measure crystallized intelligence)

2) IQ never changes

3) Intelligence tests provide perfectly reliable scores

4) Intelligence tests measure all we need to know

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Attachment

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along-term feeling of closeness between people, here we are referring to thefundamental emotional bond between caregiver and infant

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4 Phases of Attachment

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1) babies respond to anyone

2) babies respond to parents in special ways 3) attachment to parents is clear, with babies staying close to parents andseeking them out, often experiencing separation anxiety and stranger anxiety

Ideally, children progress to:

4) secure attachment that no longer requires the constant presence of theparents

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InnateInfant Behavior

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Cuddling - baby adjusts posture to fit contours of parent's body

Looking - signal for parent; eye-to-eye contact

Smiling

Crying - infants cry is irritating/distressing to parent

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Ainsworth’s Strange Situation

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-SecurelyAttached (app.65% of children)

–explores when mother is present

–is distressed when mother leaves

–greets her with enthusiasm when shereturns -InsecurelyAttached: Anxious (app.10-15% of children)

–does not explore even when mother ispresent; stays right by her side (clingy)

–very upset when mother leaves

–clingy when she returns

-InsecurelyAttached: Avoidant (app.20-25% of children)

–distant and aloof throughout

–little distress when mother leaves

–ignores her when she returns

-Disorganized(Relatively Rare):infant shows more fear than affection; least securely attached of all

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Temperment

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characteristicreaction patterns of the individual that is present from an early age; thoughtto be largely genetic and constitutional in origin

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Two Dimensions of Temperament

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–sociability:preference for interactions with others vs being left alone

–emotionality:tendency to be fearful, anxious

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Kohlberg’sLevels of Morality

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1) Preconventional Morality

2) Conventional Morality

3) Postconventional Morality

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Preconventional Morality

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*moralreasoning is based largely on expectation of rewards and punishments

*Step 1: childobeys rules in order to avoid being punished (egocentric); behave morally out of fear of punishment

*Step 2: childconforms to society’s rules to obtain rewards; children follow rules when it isto their benefit193170432-8:

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Conventional Morality

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*moralreasoning is based largely on conformity and social standards

*Stage 3: individualbehaves morally to gain approval from other people; trying to live up to expectations ofparents, teachers, etc. Understandmorality – Golden Rule

*Stage 4: individualbehaves morally to avoid censure and guilt; recognize the importance of thesocial system; law and order – follow what the law says

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Postconventional Morality

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*moralreasoning is based largely on personal standards and beliefs

*Step 5: individual is concerned with individualrights and agreed upon laws; people needto abide by laws to protect everyone

*Step 6: individualis entirely guided by his/her conscience; universal principles of justice – ifa law violates these principles, need to act according to principles(Ghandi level)

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FiveWays to Define Abnormal Behavior

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1.StatisticalDeviation (statistically rare; deviates from average)

2.Violationof Cultural Standards(action that violates the standards of asociety or ethnic group)

3.MaladaptiveBehavior

4.EmotionalDistress

5.LegalDefinition: Impaired Judgment and Self Control (whether a person can distinguish right from wrong and can control his/herbehavior)

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Diagnosticand Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders(DSM-IV)

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FiveAxes for DSM IV:

–AxisI: Major Disorders/Clinical Syndromes

–AxisII: Milder Long-term Disturbances(Mental Retardation & Personality Disorders)

–AxisIII: General Medical Conditions

–AxisIV: Psychosocial and EnvironmentalProblems

–AxisV: Global Assessment of FunctioningScale

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Causes of Mental Disorders

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Biological: says that mental disorders are caused by biological factors (ex.geneticfactors, hormonal imbalances, altered brain dopamine systems, and structuralabnormalities in the brain)

Psychological Models: says mental disorders are caused by psychological problems/social problems

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Schizophrenia

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refersto a group of psychotic disorders characterized by the breakdown of integratedpersonality functioning, withdrawal from reality, emotional distortions, anddisturbed thought processes(disconnect w/ reality)

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Categories of Schizophrenia Symptoms

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1) Disorders of cognition

•Disorder of thought

•Disturbance of attention

•Losing contact

Delusions(Persecution or Grandeur)

2) Disordersof perception (ex. hallucinations)

3) Disordersof emotion (flat affect to rapid shift)

4) Disordersof motor function (ex. bizarre poses)

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Causes of Schizophrenia

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BiologicalCauses:–Genetic predisposition

–Schizophrenia may be due to an excess ofdopamine activity in the CNS

–Structural defects in the brain

PsychologicalCauses:–Family Interactions

–Cognitive Processes

***Diathesis-StressModel ***

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Causes of Mood Disorders

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BiologicalCauses:–Genetic predisposition

–Seratonin in short supply in depressedindividuals

–Melatonin is important with SeasonalAffective Disorder and General Depression PsychologicalCauses:

–Beck's Cognitive Theory - patient'sbeliefs about the world cause them to be depressed

–Learned Helplessness - depressed peopleno longer think they have control over what happens to them so they simply stoptrying

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Dissociative Amnesia

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an individual is suddenly unable to remember a period of her life

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Dissociative Fugue

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an individual wanders away from home and can be gone for extended periods

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Dissociative Identity Disorder

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formerly known as Multiple Personality Disorder