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143 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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phonology
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refers to the rules governing structure and sequence of speech sounds
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semantics
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involves vocabulary; the way underlying concepts are are expressed in words and word combinations
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grammar
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the third component of language, consists of two main parts
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syntax
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part of grammar; rules by which words are arranged into sentences
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morphology
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part of grammar; the use of grammatical markers indicating number, tense, case, person, gender, active or passive voice, and other meanings (e.g., endings in -s or -ed)
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pragmatics
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rules for engaging in appropriate and effective communication
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language acquisition device (LAD)
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system that permits children to combine words into grammatically consistent, novel utterances and to understand the meaning of the sentences they hear AFTER they have acquired sufficient vocabulary
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universal grammar
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a built-in storehouse of rules that apply to all human languages
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Broca's area
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located in the left frontal lobe, supports grammatical processing and language production
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Wernicke's area
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located in the left temporal lobe, plays a role in comprehending word meaning
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phonology
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refers to the rules governing structure and sequence of speech sounds
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semantics
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involves vocabulary; the way underlying concepts are are expressed in words and word combinations
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grammar
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the third component of language, consists of two main parts
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syntax
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part of grammar; rules by which words are arranged into sentences
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morphology
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part of grammar; the use of grammatical markers indicating number, tense, case, person, gender, active or passive voice, and other meanings (e.g., endings in -s or -ed)
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pragmatics
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rules for engaging in appropriate and effective communication
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language acquisition device (LAD)
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system that permits children to combine words into grammatically consistent, novel utterances and to understand the meaning of the sentences they hear AFTER they have acquired sufficient vocabulary
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universal grammar
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a built-in storehouse of rules that apply to all human languages
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Broca's area
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located in the left frontal lobe, supports grammatical processing and language production
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Wernicke's area
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located in the left temporal lobe, plays a role in comprehending word meaning
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phonemes
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the smallest sound units that signal a change in meaning, such as the difference between the consonant sounds "ba" and "pa"
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categorical speech perception
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tendency to perceive as identical a range of sounds that belong to the same phonemic class
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child-directed speech (CDS)
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a form of communication made up of short sentences with high-pitched, exaggerated expression, clear pronunciation, distinct pauses between speech segments, clear gestures to support verbal meaning, the repetition of new words in a variety of contexts.
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cooing
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vowel-like noises
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babbling
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infants repeat consonant-vowel combinations, often in long strings
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joint attention
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in which child attends to the same object or event as the caregiver
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protodeclarative
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the baby points to, touches, or holds up an object while looking at others to make sure they notice
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protoimperative
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a baby gets another person to do something by reaching, pointing, and often making sounds at the same time
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comprehension
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the language children understand; develops faster than language production
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production
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the language children use
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fast-mapping
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children can connect a new word with an underlying concept after only a brief encounter
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referential style
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vocabularies of children consist mainly of words that refer to objects
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expressive style
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compared with referential children, they produces many more social formulas and pronouns
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underextension
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may apply words to narrowly
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overextension
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applying a word to a broader collection of objects and events than is appropriate
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phonological store
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young children's fast-mapping is supported by a special part of the working memory which permits us to retain speech-based formulation
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mutual exclusivity bias
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the assumption that words refer to entirely separate (non-overlapping) categories
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shape bias
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very evident once toddlers have learned about 75 words; previous learning of nouns based on shape heightens attention to the shape properties of additional objects; toddlers readily master more names for objects distinguished by shape, and vocabulary accelerates
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syntactic bootstrapping
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preschoolers discover many word meanings by observing how words are used in syntax, or the structure of sentences
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emergentist coalition model
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proposes that word-learning strategies emerge out of children's efforts to decipher language; children draw on a coalition of cues--perceptual, social, and linguistic--which shift in importance with age
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telegraphic speech
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two-word utterances; like a telegram and focus on high content words and omit smaller, less important ones
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grammatical morphemes
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small markers that change the meaning of sentences
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overregularization
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error in which children apply a regular morphological rule, they extend to to words that are exceptions
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semantic bootstrapping
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children use word meanings to figure out a sentence structure; children might being by grouping together word meanings to figure out sentence structure; children might begin by grouping together words with "agent" qualities (things that cause actions) such as subjects and words with "action" qualities as verbs; they then merge these categories with observations of how words are used in sentences
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recasts
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restructuring inaccurate speech into a correct form
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expansions
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elaborating on children's speech and increasing its complexity
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turnabout
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the speaker not only comments on what has just been said but also adds a request to get the partner to respond again
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shading
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speaker initiates a change of topic by gradually modifying the focus of the discussion
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illocutionary intent
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what a speaker means to say, even if the form of utterance is not perfectly consistent with it
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referential communication skills
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to produce clear verbal messages and recognize when messages we receive are unclear so we ask for more information
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speech registers
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language adaptations to social expectations
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metalinguistic awareness
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the ability to think about language as a system
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code switching
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bilingual children sometimes engage in this; producing an utterance in one language that contains one o r more "guest" words from the other
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emotion
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rapid appraisal of the personal significance of the situation which prepares you for action; happiness leads you to approach, sadness to passively withdraw, fear to actively move away, and anger to overcome obstacles; emotion then expresses your readiness to establish, maintain or change your relation to the environment on a matter of importance to you
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functionalist approach to emotion
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emphasizing that the broad function of emotions is to energize behavior aimed at attaining personal goals
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basic emotions
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happiness, interest, surprise, fear, anger, sadness, disgust--universal in humans and other primates, have a long evolutionary history of promoting survival, and can be directly inferred from facial expressions
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social smile
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emerges between 6 and 10 weeks; evoked by parental communication with infants
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stranger anxiety
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expression of fear most frequently expressed to unfamiliar adults
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self-conscious emotions
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second set of emotions; shame embarrassment, guilt, envy and pride; each involves injury or enhancement to our self-esteem
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secure base
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infants use the familiar caregiver as this familiar base
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emotional self-regulation
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strategies we use to adjust the intensity or duration of our emotional reactions to a comfortable level so we can accomplish our goals
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problem-centered coping
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children appraise the situation as changeable, identify the difficulty, and decide what to do about it
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emotion-centered coping
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children resort to this if problem-solving doesn't work; internal, private, and aimed at controlling distress when little can be done about an outcome
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emotional display rules
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societal rules that specify when, where, and how it is appropriate to express emotions
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social referencing
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involves relying on another person's emotional reaction to appraise an uncertain situation
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empathy
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involves complex interaction of cognition and affect; the ability to detect different emotions. to take another's emotional perspective, and to feel with that person, or respond emotionally in a very similar way
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prosocial/altruistic behavior
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actions that benefit another person without any expected reward for the self
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sympathy
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feelings of concern or sorrow for another's plight
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temperament
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early-appearing, stable individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation; reactivity refers to variations in quickness and intensity of emotional arousal, attention, and motor action; self-regulation refers to strategies to modify reactivity
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easy child
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40% of sample; quickly establishes regular routines in infancy; generally cheerful, and adapts easily to new experiences
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difficult child
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10% of sample; irregular daily routines; slow to accept new experiences; tends to react negatively and intensely
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slow-to-warm-up child
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15% of sample; is inactive; shows mild, low-key reactions to environmental stimuli; is negative in mood; adjusts slowly to new experiences
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effortful control
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the self-regulatory dimension of temperament; involves voluntarily suppressing a dominant response in order to plan and execute a more adaptive response
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inhibited/shy children
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react negatively and withdraw from novel stimuli
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uninhibited/sociable children
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display positive motion to and approach novel stimuli
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goodness-of-fit model
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explains how temperament and environment together can produce favorable outcomes;involves creating child-rearing environments that recognize each child's temperament while encouraging more adaptive functioning
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attachment
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the strong, affectionate tie we have with special people in our lives that leads us to experience pleasure when we interact with them and to be comforted by their nearness in times of stress
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ethological theory of attachment
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recognizes the infant's emotional tie to the caregiver as an evolved response that promotes survival; most widely accepted view
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separation anxiety
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becoming upset when the adult on whom we have come to rely leaves
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internal working model
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set of expectations about the availability of attachment figures, their likelihood of providing support during times of stress, and the self's interaction with those figures
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strange situation
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a laboratory technique for measuring the quality of attachment between 1and 2 years of age; reasoning is that if the development of attachment has gone well, infants and toddlers should use the parent as a secure base from which to explore an unfamiliar playroom; when the parent leaves, an unfamiliar adult should be less comforting than the parent; takes the baby through eight short episodes in which brief separations from and reunions with the caregiver occur
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secure attachment
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infants use the parents as a secure base; when separated, they may or may not cry, but if they do it is because the parent is absent and they prefer her to the stranger; when the parent returns, they actively seek contact. and their crying is reduced immediately
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avoidant attachment
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infants seem unresponsive to the parent when she is present; when she leaves usually do not display distress and react to the stranger in much the same way as they do the parent; during reunion, they avoid or are slow to greet the parent and when picked up they often fail to cling
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resistant attachment
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before separation, these infants seek closeness to the parent and often fail to explore; when parents leave are usually distressed, and on return they combine clinginess with angry, resistive behavior, struggling when held and sometimes hitting or pushing; many continue to cry and cling after being picked up and cannot be comforted easily
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disorganized/disoriented attachment
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reflects the greatest insecurity; at reunion, infants show confused contradictory behaviors--looking away while the parent is approaching them or approaching parent with flat, depressed emotion; most display a dazed facial expression, and a few cry out unexpectedly after having calmed down, or display odd frozen postures
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Attachment Q-Sort
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alternative method suitable for children between 1 and 4 years of age to be assessed through home observations
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sensitive care-giving
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responding promptly, consistently, and appropriately to infants and holding them tenderly and carefully
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interactional synchrony
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special form of communication; separated the experiences of secure from insecure babies; best described as a sensitively tuned "emotional dance" in which the caregiver responds to infant signals in well-timed, rhythmic, appropriate fashion, and both partners match emotional states, especially the positive ones
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developmentally appropriate practice
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standards devised by the US National Association for the Education of Young Children; specify program characteristics that meet the developmental and individual needs of young children, based on both current research and consensus among experts
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social cognition
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how children come to understand a multifaceted social world
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self-recognition
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identification of the self as a physically unique being
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categorical self
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between 18 and 30 months; children classify themselves and others on the basis of age, sex, physical characteristics, and even goodness and badness
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remembered self
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autobiographical memory; this life-story narrative grants a child this remembered self
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enduring self
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a view of themselves as persisting over time
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inner self
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private thoughts and imaginings
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desire theory of mind
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children think that people always act in ways consistent with their desires and do not understand that less obvious, more interpretive mental states, such as beliefs, also affect behavior
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belief-desire theory of mind
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a more sophisticated view in which both beliefs and desires determine actions
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self-concept
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the set of attributes, abilities, attitudes, and values that an individual believes defines who he or she is
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social comparisons
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judging their own appearance, abilities, and behavior in relation to those of others
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generalized other
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a blend of what we imagine important people in our lives think of us
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self-esteem
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the judgments we make about our own worth and feelings associated with those judgments
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attributions
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our common, everyday explanations for the causes of behavior--our answers to the question " why did another person do that?"
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achievement motivation
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the tendency to persist at challenging tasks
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mastery-oriented attributions
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crediting their successes to ability--a characteristic they can improve through trying hard and can count on when faced with new challenges
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incremental view of ability
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that it can increase through effort; influences the way mastery-oriented children interpret negative events; they attribute failure to factors that can be changed or controlled, such as insufficient effort or a difficult task
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learned helplessness
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attribute their failures, not their successes, to ability; when they succeed, they are likely to conclude that external events such as luck are responsible; they hold an entity view of ability
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entity view of ability
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ability cannot be improved by trying hard
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attribution retraining
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encourages learned-helpless children to believe they can overcome failure by exerting more effort
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identity
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first recognized by Erik Erikson; a major personality achievement and a crucial step toward becoming a productive, content adult; constructing an identity involves defining who you are, what you value, and the directions you choose to pursue in life
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identity achievement
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commitment to values, beliefs, and goals following a period of exploration
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identity moratorium
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exploration without having reached commitment
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identity foreclosure
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commitment in the absence of exploration
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identity diffusion
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an apathetic state characterized by lack of both exploration and commitment
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bicultural identity
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by exploring and adopting values from both the adolescent's subculture and the dominant culture
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person perception
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refers to the way we size up the attributes of people with whom we are familiar
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perspective-taking
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the capacity to imagine what other people may have been thinking/feeling
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social problem-solving
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generating and applying strategies that prevent or resolve disagreements, resulting in outcomes that are both acceptable to others and beneficial to the self
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internalization
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adopting societal standards for right actions as one's own; this is what moral development is all about
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induction
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an adult helps the child notice others' feelings by pointing out the effects of the child's misbehavior on others, noting especially their distress and making clear that the other child caused it
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time out
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involves removing children from the immediate setting; sending them to their room until they are ready to act appropriately
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construction
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actively attending to and interrelating multiple perspectives on situations in which social conflicts arise and thereby attaining new moral understandings
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heteronomous morality
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children in the first stage view rules as handed down by authorities (God, parents, teachers) as having a permanent existence, as unchangeable, and as requiring strict obedience
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realism
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tendency to view mental phenomena, including rules, as fixed eternal features of reality
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autonomous morality
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second stage of moral development in which children no longer view rules as fixed but see them as flexible; socially agreed-on principles that can be revised to suite the will of the majority
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ideal reciprocity
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grasp of importance of mutuality of expectations; idea expressed in the Golden Rule: "do unto others as you would have them to unto you"
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moral judgment interview
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individuals resolve dilemmas that present conflicts between two moral values and justify their decisions
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sociomoral reflection measure-shortform (SFM-SF)
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Supports more efficient gather and scoring on moral reasoning; short questionnaires devised by researchers
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pre-conventional level
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morality is externally controlled; children accept the rules of authority figures and judge actions by their consequences; behaviors that result in punishment are viewed as bad, those that lead to rewards as good
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conventional level
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individuals continue to regard conformity to social rules as important, but not for reasons of self-interest; rather, they believe that actively maintaining the current social system ensures positive human relationships and societal order
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post-conventional level
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individuals move beyond unquestioning support for the rules and laws of their own society; they define morality in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all situations and societies
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moral self-relevance
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the degree to which morality is central to self-concept
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moral imperatives
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protect people's rights and welfare
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social conventions
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customs determined solely by consensus, such as table manners and rituals of social interaction
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matters of personal choice
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choice of friends, hairstyle, leisure activities; which do not violate rights and are up to the individual
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distributive justice
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beliefs about how to divide material goods fairly
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compliance
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toddlers show clear awareness of caregivers' wishes and expectations and can obey simple requests and commands
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delay of gratification
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waiting for an appropriate time and place to engage in a tempting act
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moral self-regulation
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the ability to monitor one's own conduct constantly adjusting it as circumstances present opportunities to violate inner standards
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proactive (instrumental) aggression
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in which children act to fulfill a need or desire--obtain an object, privilege, space, or social reward, such as adult attention or peer admiration and unemotionally attack a person to achieve their goal
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reactive (hostile) aggression
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an angry or defensive response to a provocation or a blocked goal and is meant to hurt another person
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physical aggression
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harms others through physical injury--pushing, hitting, kicking, or punching others, or destroying another's property
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verbal aggression
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harms others through threats of physical aggression, name-calling or hostile teasing
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relational aggression
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damages another's peer relationships through social exclusion, malicious gossip, or friendship manipulation
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