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187 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Systematic Observation (Systematic Observation)
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Observes behavior in natural context; S- reflects everyday behavior, W- no control over conditions of observation, accuracy reduced by observer and their bias
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Structured Observation (Systematic Observation)
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Observation in laboratory setting with regulated conditions; S- equal opportunity to display certain behaviors. W- accuracy reduced as actions may not reflect everyday life and include observer bias
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Clinical Interview (Self-Reports)
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Flexible interviewing procedure; S- lots of information, comes close to the way the participant thinks, W- flexible interviews make comparing participants difficult; inconsistent results
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Structured interviews /questionnaires/ tests (Self-Reports)
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Each participant is asked the same questions in the same way; S- permits comparisons of results, specified answers, W- information lacks depth, subject to inaccurate reporting
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Psychophysiological Methods
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measure relationship between psychological processes and behavior; S- reveal central nervous system structures that contribute to development and individual differences; W- cannot reveal the meaning of autonomic brain activity, many things influence psychological responses
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Clinical or Case Study Method
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Full psychological profile obtained by interviews, observations, test scores, and psycho-physiological processes; S- rich descriptive insights, W- may be biased, cannot be applied to others
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Ethnography
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Observation of a culture or distinct social group by making extensive field notes in attempt to capture values and social processes; S- more complete description than can be obtained by one process alone, W- may be biased, cannot be applied to settings other than the ones studied.
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Event Sampling
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Observer records all instances of a specific event
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Time Sampling
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researcher records whether certain behaviors occur during a sample of short intervals
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Observer Influence
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effects of the observer on the behavior studied
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Observer Bias
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observers are aware of the purposes of a study, they may see what they want to see rather than what is actually happening
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Reliability
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refers to the consistency, ore repeatability, of measures of behavior
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Validity
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they must accurately measure characteristics that the researcher has set out to measure
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Internal validity
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degree to which conditions internal to the design of a study permit an accurate test or the researcher's hypothesis or question
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External Validity
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Extent to which findings generalize to settings and participants outside the original study
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Correlational Design
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Obtains information without altering experiences; S- permits study of relationships between variables, W- does not permit inferences about cause-and-effect
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Correlation Coefficient
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Number that describes how two measures, or variables, are associated with each other (+1.00 to -1.00)
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Experimental Design
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Permits interferences about cause and effect as researchers use evenhanded procedures to assign people to 2+ research conditions
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Independent Variable
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Factor that the researcher expects to cause changes to other factors
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Dependent Variable
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what investigators expect to be influenced by the independent variable
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Confounding Variables
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so closely associated that their effects on the outcome can't be distinguished
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Random Assignment
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assigns participants to conditions randomly and increases the chances that characteristics of participants will be equally distributed across treatment groups
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Laboratory Experiment
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Conducted under controlled laboratory conditions and uses independent and dependent variables; S- permits inferences about cause-and-effect; findings may not generalize to the real world
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Matching
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Procedure in which participants are measured ahead of time and deliberately matched to certain circumstances based on characteristics that are likely to distort results
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Field Experiment
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Investigator randomly assigns participants to treatment conditions in natural settings; S- permits generalization of findings to real world, W- control over treatment is weaker than in a lab experiment
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Natural or quasi-, Experiment
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Comparison of already existing treatments in the real world, carefully selecting participants with like characteristics; S- permits study of real-world conditions that cannot be manipulated in experiments, W- findings may be due to alternate variables
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Longitudinal Design
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Investigator studies the same group of participants repeatedly at different ages; S- study of common patterns and development between early and later ages, W- age-related changes may be distorted by biased sampling, selective attrition, practice effects, and cohort effects
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Cross-sectional Design
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Investigator studies groups of participants differing in age at the same time; S- more efficient than longitudinal design, not plagued by long term complications, W- does not permit study individual trends, cohort effects
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Sequential Design
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Investigator conducts cross-sectional studies at varying times, S- permits longitudinal and cross-sectional studies and tracks age related changes, W- may have the same weaknesses as long. or cross-sec. studies
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Microgenetic Design
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Investigator presents children with novel task and follows their mastery over closely spaced sessions. S- insight into how change occurs, W- requires intensive study of participants, lots of time, practice effects may distort
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Biased Sampling
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failure to enlist participants who represent population of interest
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Selective Attrition
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Participants may move away or drop out of studies and the ones who remain are likely to differ in important ways
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Practice Effects
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Improvement in test taking skills of participants or becoming accustomed to testing procedures can effect results
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Cohort Effects
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Effects of cultural or historical conditions; may make findings inapplicable to other children developing at other times
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Protection from Harm
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Researchers must seek opinions of others to determine if a study may have harmful effects on participants
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Informed Consent
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All research participants have the right to have the aspects of the research; parents and legal guardians may need to consent as well; Children and parents/guardians maintain the right to discontinue research at any time
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Privacy
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right to concealment of their identity in the research in any form
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Knowledge of Results
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They have the right to be informed of the results at their level of understanding
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Beneficial Treatments
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Children in control groups have the right to obtain alternative beneficial treatment when participating in an experiment which entails beneficial treatment
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Risks-versus-benefits Ratio
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weighing costs to participants in terms of convenience and possible psychological or physical injury against the study's value for advancing in knowledge and improving conditions of life
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Debriefing
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researcher provides a full account and justification of the activities
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Child Development
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an area of study devoted to understanding constancy and change from conception through adolescence
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Developmental Science
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Child development is part of this interdisciplinary field
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Domains
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Physical, cognitive, and emotional and social
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Prenatal period
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conception to birth
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Infancy and toddlerhood
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birth to two years
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Early Childhood
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2 - 6 years
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Middle Childhood
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6 - 11 years
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Adolescence
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11 - 18 years
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Emerging Adulthood
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18 - 25 years
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Theory
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orderly integrated set of statements that describes, explains, and predicts behavior
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Continuous Development
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gradually adding more of same types of skills that were there to begin with
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Discontinuous
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new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge at specific times
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Stages
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qualitative changes in thinking, feelings and behaving that characterize specific periods of development
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Contexts
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unique combinations of personal and environmental circumstances that can result in different paths of change
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Nature vs. Nurture
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Genetics or environment
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Resilience
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the ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development
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Medieval View of Childhood
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Children are vulnerable beings; sometimes depicted as portraying the devil and in need of purification
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Reformation View of Childhood
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Children are born evil and need to be civilized
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Tabula Rasa
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Blank slate, John Locke
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Noble Savages
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Jean-Jaques Rousseau, naturally endowed with sense of right and wrong with an innate plan for orderly, healthy growth
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Maturation
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genetically determined, naturally unfolding course of growth
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Darwin
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Natural selection, survival of the fittest
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Normative Approach
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measures of behavior are taken on large numbers of individual and age related averages, are computed and represent typical development
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Psychoanalytic perspective
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Children move through a series of changes in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations; Resolution of these conflicts determines person's ability to learn, get along with others and cope with anxiety
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Psychosexual Theory
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Emphasizes that how parents manage their child's sexual and agrressive behavior in the first few years of life is crucial to development
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Oral
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Birth - 1 year
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Anal
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1 - 3 years
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Phallic
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3 - 6 years
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Latency
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6 - 11 years
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Genital
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Adolescence
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Psychosocial Theory
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Erikson; emphasized that in addition to mediating between id impulses and superego demands, ego makes positive contributions to development, acquiring attitudes and skills at each stage that make the individual an active, contributing member of society
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Basic Trust vs. Mistrust
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Birth - 1 year
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Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
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1 - 3 years
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Initiative vs. guilt
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3 - 6 years
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Industry vs. inferiority
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6 - 11 years
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Identity vs. Identity Confusion
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Adolescence
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Intimacy vs. Isolation
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Young Adulthood
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Generativity vs. stagnation
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Middle adulthood
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Integrity vs. Despair
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Old age
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Behaviorism
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directly observable events (stimuli and responses, are the appropriate focus of study
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Social Learning Theory
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Albert Bandura; emphasized modeling, otherwise known as imitation or observational learning, as a powerful source of development
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Behavior modification
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procedures that combine conditioning and modeling to eliminate undesirable behaviors and increase desirable responses
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Piaget's Cognitive-Developmental Theory
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children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore the world;
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Sensorimotor
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Birth - 2 years; think by acting on the world using their senses
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Preoperational
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2 - 7 years; use symbols to represent earlier discoveries; development of language, make believe play, etc.
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Concrete Operational
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7 - 11 years; reasoning becomes logical and better organized
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Formal Operational
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11 years on; capacity for abstract, systematic thinking enables stronger problem solving abilities; can evaluate logic of statements
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Information Processing
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Views the human mind as a symbol-manipulating system through which information flows
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Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience
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brings together researchers from psychology, biology, neuroscience, and medicine to study the relationship between changes in the brain and the developing child's cognitive processing and behavioral patterns
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Ethology
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concerned with the adaptive, or survival value of behavior and its evolutionary history
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Sensitive Period
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A time that is optimal for certain capacities to emerge and in which the individual is especially responsive to environmental influences; boundaries are less well defined than those of a critical period; development can occur later but is hard to induce
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Evolutionary Developmental Psychology
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Seeks to understand the adaptive value of species-wide cognitive, emotional and social competencies as though competencies change with age
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Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
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how culture--values beliefs, customs, and skills of a social group--is transmitted to the next generation. Social interaction is necessary for children to acquire ways of thinking and behaving that make up a community's culture
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Ecological Systems Theory
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Views the child as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment
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Microsystem
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Activities and interaction patterns in the child's immediate surroundings (physical attributes, personalities, capacities)
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Mesosystem
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Second level of Bronfenbrenner's model encompasses connections between microsystems (home, school, neighborhood, child-care center)
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Exosystem
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consists of social settings that do not contain children but that nevertheless affect the children's experiences in immediate settings (parents' work places, religious institutions, health and welfare services)
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Macrosystem
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outermost level of Bronfenbrenner's model consisting of cultural values, laws, customs and resources
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Chronosystem
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Temporal Dimension of Bronfenbrenner's model; changes in life events can be imposed on the child and can arise from within them since as children get older they select, modify and create many of their own settings and experiences
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Dynamic Systems Perspective
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Mind, body and physical and social worlds from and integrated system that guides mastery of new skills; system is dynamic (constantly in motion); A change in any part of it disrupts the current organism-environment relationship. When this happens, the child actively reorganizes her behavior so the components of the system work together again but in a more complex way
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Psychoanalytic Perspective (Freud)
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Discontinuous; one course; nature and nurture;
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Behaviorism
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Continuous; many possible courses; emphasis on nurture
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Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory
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Discontinuous; One course; Nature and nurture
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Information Processing
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Continuous; One Course; Nature and Nurture
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Ethology and Evolutionary Developmental Psychology
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Continuous and Discontinuous; One Course; Nature and Nurture
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Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
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Continuous and Discontinuous; Many possible courses; Nature and Nurture
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Ecological Systems Theory
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Many possible courses; Nature and Nurture
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Dynamic Systems Perspective
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Continuous and discontinuous; Many courses; Nature and Nurture
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Social Policy
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any planned set of actions by a group, institution or governing body directed at attaining a social goal
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Public Policy
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Laws and government programs aimed at improving current conditions
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Individualistic Societies
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people think of themselves as separate entities and are largely concerned with their own personal needs
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Collectivist Societies
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People define themselves as part of a group and stress group goals over individual goals
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Phenotypes
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Directly observable characteristics
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Genotype
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complex blend of genetic information that determines our species and influences all our unique characteristics
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Chromosomes
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rod-like structures that store and transmit genetic information
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DNA
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composed of Chromosomes and forms a double helix
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Gene
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segment of DNA along the length of the chromosome
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Mitosis
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The process through which DNA duplicates itself
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Gametes
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sex cells; sperm and ovum
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Meiosis
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cell division process which halves the number of chromosomes normally present in body cells
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Zygote
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Formed when sperm and ovum unite so that the genes from one replace the genes from another
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Crossing Over
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chromosomes next to each other break at one or more points and exchange segments so that genes from one gamete are replaced by genes from another
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Autosomes
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22 matching pair of chromosomes
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Sex Chromosomes
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contained in the 23rd pair of chromosomes
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Identical/Monozygotic Twins
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Have the same Genetic make up
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Fraternal/Dizygotic Twins
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most common type of multiple birth; result from release and fertilization of two ova
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Allele
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two forms of each gene occur at the same place on chromosomes, one inherited from the mother and one from the father- each form is called an allele
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Homozygous
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Happens when the alleles are the same and will display the inherited trait
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Heterozygous
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Happens when the alleles differ and the relationship between them determines which trait will manifest
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Dominant-Recessive Gene Inheritance
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occurs when alleles differ; only one allele effects child's characteristics; the one that had no effect is recessive and the one that manifests is dominant
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Carriers
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Carry a recessive trait from one parent
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modifier Genes
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enhance or dilute the effects of other genes
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Incomplete Dominance
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pattern of inheritance in which both alleles are expressed in the phenotype, resulting in a combined trait or one that is intermediate between the two
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X-linked Inheritance
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harmful allele carried on X chromosome; males more susceptible to these
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Genomic Imprinting
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alleles are chemically marked so that one pair member is activated, regardless of its makeup
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Mutation
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a sudden but permanent change in a segment of DNA
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Polygenic Inheritance
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many genes determine the characteristic in question
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Genetic Counseling
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designed to help couples understand the genetic principles, genetic testing and prevention of genetic disorders; assess chances of giving birth to a baby with a hereditary disorder and choose best course of action
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Prenatal Diagnostic Methods
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medical procedures that permit detection of problems before birth
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Behavioral genetics
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Field devoted to uncovering the contributions of nature and nurture to this diversity in human traits and abilities
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Heritability Estimates
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measure the extent to which individual differences in complex traits in a specific population are due to genetic factors
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Kinship Studies
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compare the characteristics of family members
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Range of Reaction
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each person's unique, genetically determined response to the environment
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Canalization
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tendency of heredity to restrict the development of some characteristics to just one or a few outcomes
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Genetic-environmental Correlation
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our genes influence the environments to which we are exposed
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Niche-picking
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tendency to actively choose environments that complement our heredity
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Epigenesis
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development resulting from ongoing, bidirectional exchanges between heredity and all levels of the environment.
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amnion
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membrane that encloses the developing organism in amniotic fluid; maintains temperature and provides a cushion for the baby
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chorion
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surrounds the amnion; from the walls of the chorion tiny hair-like villi, or blood-vessels emerge.
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Placenta
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Brings mother and baby's blood together; permits food and oxygen to reach the developing organism and carries out waste
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Umbilical Cord
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first appears in period of zygote; contains one large vein that delivers blood loaded with nutrients and two arteries that remove waste products (1-3 ft in length)
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Embryo
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Implantation-8 weeks; most rapid prenatal changes take place; groundwork is laid for body structures and internal organs
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Fetus
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9th week-birth; longest prenatal period
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Vernix
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white, cheese-like substance protects the child from chapping in the amniotic fluid (2nd trimester)
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Languo
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white, downy hair that covers the body; helps vernix stick to the skin (3rd trimester)
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Age of Viability
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occurs between 22 and 26 weeks; the point at which the baby can first survive
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teratogen
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any environmental agent that causes damage during prenatal period
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Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD)
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term that encompasses a range of physical, mental and behavioral outcomes caused by prenatal alcohol exposure.
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Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
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slow physical growth, 3 facial abnormalities (widely spaced eyes, thin upper lip, smooth/flattened philtrum), and brain injury or impairment
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Partial Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (p-FAS)
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2/3 facial abnormalities, and brain injury
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Alcohol-related Neuro-developmental Disorder (ARND)
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At least 3 areas of mental functioning are impaired; no obvious physical manifestations
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Apgar Scale
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used to assess the baby's physical condition (0-2)
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Natural, or prepared, childbirth
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consists of a group of techniques aimed at reducing pain and medical intervention and making childbirth as rewarding an experience as possible
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Breech position
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turned in such a way that the buttocks or feet would be delivered first
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Rh factor incompatibility
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Disagreement between the mother and baby's blood types; the mother forms antibodies for the baby's Rh positive blood; can enter into the fetus' blood stream, destroy red blood cells and reduce the amount of oxygen in the blood
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Preterm Infants
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born several weeks before their due date; they may be small but their weights may be appropriate due to size of the uterus
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Small-for-date Infants
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below their expected weight considering the length of the pregnancy
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Infant Mortality
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number of deaths in the first year of life per 1000 live births is an index used around the world to assess the overall health of the nation's children
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Neonatal Mortality
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rate or death within the first month of life
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Reflex
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inborn, automatic response to a particular form of stimulation
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states of arousal
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degrees of sleep and wakefulness
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Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep
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electrical brain wave activity is remarkably similar to that of a waking state; eyes dart beneath the lids, blood pressure, heart rate and breathing uneven, slight body movements occur
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Non-rapid-eye-movement (NREM) Sleep
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body is almost motionless, breathing, heart rate and brain activity are slow and regular
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Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
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unexpected death, usually during the night, of an infant younger than 2 year of age that remains unexplained after thorough examination
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Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)
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evaluates the baby's reflexes, muscle tone, state changes, responsiveness to physical and social stimuli and other reactions
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Classical Conditioning
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possible in the young infant; a neural stimulus is paired with a stimulus that leads to a reflexive response. Once the baby's nervous system makes a connection between the two stimuli, the new stimulus will produce the behavior by itself
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Unconditioned Stimulus
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Before learning takes place, this must consistently produce a reflexive, or unconditioned response (UCR)
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Conditioned Stimulus
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Learned by the child; creates a conditioned response; reflexive
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Extinction
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Occurs when the CS is presented alone without the UCS, the CR will no longer occur
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Operant Conditioning
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infants act or operate on the environment and the stimuli that follow that behavior changes the probability that the behavior will occur again
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Reinforcer
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stimulus that increases the occurrence of behavior
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Punishment
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removing a desirable stimulus or presenting an unpleasant one decreases the occurrence of a behavior
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Habituation
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refers to a gradual reduction in the strength of a response due to repetitive stimulation
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Recovery
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new stimulus--change in the environment--causes the habituated response to return to a high level
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imitation
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copying the behavior of another person
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Mirror Neurons
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specialized cells in the motor areas of the cerebral cortex; these neurons fire identically when an action is seen and when it is repeated by the subject
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