Sfl 210 Human Development - Dr. Nelson At Byu

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Cognitive-Development theory (Piget) and aspects

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children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world
Aspects:
equilibrium
schema
assimilation
accommodation

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Equilibrium (Cognitive-development theory)

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Balanced, nothing productive gets done, learning is slowed, state of rest

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Schema (Cognitive-development theory)

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mental pictures of how you see the world

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Assimilation (Cognitive-development theory)

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fit something new into a schema you already know (find similarities)
ex: barking cat, four legged animal must be a dog

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Accomodation (Cognitive-development theory)

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change your schema, learning takes place
ex: separate dog and cat

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Information processing theory and aspects
-Input: information presented to the senses
-Output: behavioral responses are actively coded, transformed and organized.
-short term memory: (working memory) we actively apply mental strategies as we work on a limited amount of information
-long term memory: our permanent knowledge base

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- a perspective where the human mind is viewed as a symbol-manipulating system in which information flows.
Aspects:
-Input
-Output
-short term memory
-long term memory

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Input

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information presented to the senses

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Output

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behavioral responses are actively coded, transformed and organized.

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Short-term Memory

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(working memory) we actively apply mental strategies as we work on a limited amount of information

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Long-term Memory

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Our permanent knowledge base

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Ethology (e.g., Darwin)

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Adaptive, or survival, value of behavior and its evolutionary history, traced to Darwin. Includes adaption, sensitive period, critical period, natural selection, and survival of the fittest

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Critical period:

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limited time during which the child is biologically prepared to acquire certain adaptive behaviors but needs the support of an appropriately stimulating environment.

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sensitive period:

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the time that is optimal for certain capacities to emerge in which the individual is especially responsive to environmental factors.

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natural selection:

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certain species survive in particular parts of the world because they have characteristics that fit with or are adapted to their surroundings

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-survival of the fittest

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other species die off because they are not as well suited to their environment.

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Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner)

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Views the child as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment. Levels are microsystem, exosystem, mesosystem, macrosystem, chronosystem.

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microsystem:

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interactions with child’s immediate surroundings

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mesosystem:

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connections between Microsystems, such as home, school, child-care

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exosystem:

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social settings that do not contain children but that nevertheless affect children’s experiences in immediate settings… parent’s work

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macrosystem:

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cultural values, laws, customs and resources.

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chronosystem

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changes in life events can be imposed on child

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Sociocultural theory-(Vygotsky)

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focuses on how culture, values, beliefs are transmitted to the next generation.

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scaffolding

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adjusting the assistance offered during a teaching session to fit the child’s current level of performance. As competence increases, the adult gradually and sensitively withdraws support, turning responsibility over to child

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John Locke-behaviorism

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-tabula rasa: “blank slate”… children begin as nothing at all, their characters are shaped entirely by experience, opposing all punishment.
-CONTINUOUS, NURTURE, UNIVERSAL

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Jean-Jacques Rousseau- children are not blank slates

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-noble savages- naturally endowed with a sense of right and wrong and with an innate plan for orderly, healthy growth.
-maturation: genetically determined, naturally unfolding course of growth.
-DISCOUNTINUOUS, NATURE, IN CONTEXT

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Indicators of Child Health and Well-being Include:

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**Infant Death Rate- U.S. ranks 28th, worldwide; mortality rate: 6.6 per 1,000 births

**Health Care- U.S. = only industrialized nation without universal, 11% of children lack insurance; also slow to move towards national standards/funding for child care

*Childhood poverty -18% of U.S., highest percentage in all western Nations; more likely to suffer from lifelong poor physical health, deficits in cognitive development and academic achievement, high school dropout, mental illness, and antisocial behavior

*Also: teenage birth rate and public expenditures in general, on early childhood education and child care, and on health.

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Correlation design

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when researchers gather information on individuals, generally in natural life circumstances, and make no effort to alter their experiences. Then they look at relationships between participants' characteristics and their behavior or development

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Major flaw of correlational design

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Cannot infer cause and effect

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The correlation coefficient

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a number that describes how two measures, or variables, are associated with each other. It can range from +1.00 to -1.00. The magnitude, or size, of the number shows the strength of the relationship. A zero correlation indicates no relationship; the closer the value is to either +1.00 or -1.00, the stronger the relationship. The sign of the number refers to the direction of the relationship. A positive sign means that as one variable increases, the other also increases. A negative sign indicates that as one variable increases, the other decreases.

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experimental design

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permits inferences about cause and effect because researchers use an evenhanded procedre to assign people to two or more treatment conditions.

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independent variable

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the one that the investigator expects to cause changes in another variable.

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dependent variable

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the one the investigator expects to be influenced by the independent variable.

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Confounding variables

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so closely associated that their effects on an outcome cannot be distinguished.

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random assignment

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an evenhanded procedure for assigning participants to treatment groups, such as drawing numbers out of a hat or flipping a coin, which increases the chances that participants' characteristics will be equally distributed across treatment conditions in an experiment.

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matching

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when participants are measured ahead of time on the factor in question.

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Field experiments

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researchers capitalize on opportunities to randomly assign participants to treatment conditions in natural settings.

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Natural (or quasi-) experiments

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a research design in which the investigator compares treatments that already exist in natural settings by carefully selected groups of participants with similar characteristics.

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longitudinal design

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participants are studied repeatedly at different stages, and changes are noted as they get older.

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2 major strengths of longitudinal design

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1. Because it tracks the performance of each person over time, researchers can identify common patterns as well as individual differences in development.
2. They permit investigators to examine relationships between early and later events and behaviors.

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Problems with longitudinal design

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1. Biased sampling
2. Selective attrition – Participants move away or drop out for other reasons, and the ones who remain are likely to differ in important ways from the ones who do not continue.
3. Practice effects – participants become “test wise”. Their performance improves because of better test-taking skills and increased familiarity with the test – not because of factors commonly associated with development.
4. Cohort effects – longitudinal studies examine the development of cohorts – children developing in the same time period who are influenced by particular cultural and historical conditions. Results based on one cohort may not apply to children developing at other times.

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cross-sectional design

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groups of people differing in age are studied at the same point in time.

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Advantages of cross-sectional design

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1. It's an efficient strategy for describing age-related trends.
2. Because participants are only measured once, researchers need not be concerned about such difficulties as selective attrition, practice effects, r changes in the field that might make the findings obsolete by the time the study is complete.

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Problems with cross-sectional design

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1. Does not provide evidence about development at the level of an individual.
2. They can be threatened by cohort effects.

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Sequential designs

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when researchers conduct several similar cross-sectional or longitudinal studies (called sequences) at varying times.

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Microgenetic design

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an adaptation of the longitudinal approach, presents children with a noval task and follows their mastery over a series of closely spaced sessions. Within this “microcosm” of development, researchers observe how change occurs.

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Problems with microgenetic design

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• Researchers must pore over hours of recorded information, analyzing each participant's behavior many times.
• The time required for children to change is hard to anticipate
• practice effects can distort microgenetic findings.

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Types of systematic observation

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Naturalistic Observation - observation of behavior in natural context.

Structured Observation – observation of behavior in a laboratory, where conditions are the same for all participants

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Strengths/limitations of naturalistic observations

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Strengths:
• Reflects participant's everyday behaviors

Limitations:
• Cannot control conditions under which participants are observed. Accuracy of observations may be reduced by observer influence and observer bias.

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Strengths/limitations of structured observations

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Strengths:
• Grants each participant an equal opportunity to display the behavior of interest. Permits study of behaviors rarely seen in everyday life.

Limitations:
• May not yield observations typical of participants' behavior in everyday life. Accuracy of observations may be reduced by observer influence and observer bias.

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Types of self-reports

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Clinical Interview – flexible interviewing procedure in which the investigator obtains a complete account of the participant's thoughts

Structured interview, questionnaires, and tests – Self-report instruments in which each participant is asked the same questions in the same way.

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Strengths and limitations of clinical interview

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Strengths:
• Comes as close as possible to the way participants think in everyday life. Great breadth and depth of information can be obtained in a short time.

Limitations:
• May not result in accurate reporting of information. Flexible procedure makes comparing individuals' responses difficult.

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Strengths and limitations of structured interviews, questionnaires, and tests

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Strengths:
• Permits comparisons of participants' responses and efficient data collection. Researchers can specify answer alternatives that participants might not think of in an open-ended interview.

Limitations:
• does not yield the same depth of information as a clinical interview. Responses are still subject to inaccurate reporting.

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Psychophysiological methods

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methods that measure the relationship between physiological processes and behavior

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Strengths and limitations of psychophysiological methods

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Strengths:
• Reveals which central nervous system structures contribute to development and individual differences in certain competencies. Helps infer the perceptions, thought, and emotions of infants and young children, who cannot report them clearly.

Limitations:
• Cannot reveal with certainty the meaning of autonomic or brain activity. Many factors besides those of interest to the researcher can influence a physiological response.

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Clinical (case study) method

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a full picture of one individual's psychological functioning, obtained by combining interviews, observations, test scores, and sometimes psycho-physiological assessments

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Strengths and limitations of clinical method

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Strengths:
• Provides rich, descriptive insights into factors that affect development.

Limitations:
• May be biased by researchers' theoretical preferences. Findings cannot be applied to individuals other than the participant.

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Ethnography –

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Participant observation of a culture or distinct social group; by making extensive field notes, the researcher tries to capture the culture's unique values and social processes

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Strengths and limitations of ethnography

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Strengths:
• Provides a more complete description than can be derived from a single observational visit, interview, or questionnaire.

Limitations:
• May be biased by researchers' values and theoretical performances. Findings cannot be applied to individuals and settings other than the ones studied.

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Reliability:

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the consistency, or repeatability, of measures of behavior. Inter-rater reliability: in observational research, observes are asked to evaluate the same behaviors, and agreement between them is obtained. Test-retest reliability: self reports and psychophysiological data are collected on different days with the same results

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Validity:

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the ability of a research method to accurately measures characteristics that the researcher set out to measure. Internal validity: the degree to which conditions internal to the design of the study permit accurate test of the researcher’s hypothesis. External validity: the degree to which their findings generalize to settings and participants outside the original study.

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Random assignment:

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using an unbiased procedure, such as drawing numbers out of a hat or flipping a coin, investigators increase the chances that participants’ characteristics will be equally distributed across treatment groups.

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Matching:

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participants are matched ahead of time on the factor in question. This is done to eliminate differing characteristics that might distort the results.

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Sequential designs:

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investigators conduct several similar cross-sectional or longitudinal studies at varying times to overcome limitations of developmental design research.

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Children's research rights

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Protection from harm
informed consent
Privacy
Knowledge of results
Beneficial treatment
Risk-versus-benefits ratio

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Hypothesis

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a prediction drawn from a theory. Research usually begins with a hypothesis.

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Description, causes, consequences, chances of Down Syndrome

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The most common chromosomal disorder, occurring in 1 out of every 1,000 live births.

Causes: In 95% of the cases, it results from the failure of the 21st pair of chromosomes to separate during meiosis, so the new individual inherits three of these chromosomes rather than the normal two. For this reason down syndrome is sometimes called Trisomy 21.

Consequences: mental retardation(impaired intellectual development), memory and speech problems, limited vocabulary, and slow motor development! Smaller brain, distinct facial and physical features: short, stocky build, protruding, tongue, flattened face, almond shaped eyes.

* The risk of giving birth to a baby with down syndrome increases with age. Age 20: 1 in 1,900 births, age 42: 1 in 65 births.

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Prenatal Diagnostic Methods

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Amniocentesis or chronic villus sampling

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Amniocentesis

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most widely used technique. A hollow needle is inserted through the abdominal wall to obtain a sample of the fluid in the uterus. Fetal cells are examined for genetic defects. Can be used by the 14th week after conception; 1 to 2 more weeks are required for test results. Disadvantage: small risk of miscarriage.

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Chronic villus sampling

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A small plug of tissue is removed from the end of one or more chorionic villi, the hairlike projections on the membrane surrounding the developing organism. Cells are examined for genetic defects.
2 ways:
* thin tube is inserted into the uterus through the vagina
* hollow needle is inserted through the abdominal wall

- can be performed much earlier in pregnancy if results are needed or desired, at nine weeks after conception, and results available within 24 hours.

Disadvantages: slightly greater risk of miscarriage than amniocentesis. Also associated with a small risk of limb deformities, which increases the earlier the procedure is performed.

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Teratogen

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Any environmental agent that causes damage during the pre-natal period.

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Effects of tobacco on pregnancy

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miscarriage, prematurity, impaired heart rate and breathing during sleep, infant death, and asthma and cancer later in childhood.

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Effects of tobacco on infants

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less attentive to sounds, display more muscle tension, are more excitable when touched and visually stimulated, and more often have colic

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Characteristics of fetal alcohol syndrome

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a) slow physical growth
b) a pattern of 3 facial abnormalities( short eye lid openings; a thin upper lip; a smooth or flattened philtrum, or intendation running from the bottom of the nose to the center of the upper lip.
c) brain injury: small head, and impairment in at least 3 areas of functioning- memory, language, and communication, attention span, and activity level(overactivity), planning and reasoning, motor coordination, or social skills.

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Effects of radiation on pregnancy/infant

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ionizing radiation can cause mutation, damaging the DNA in ova and sperm. Even when a radiation exposed baby seems normal, problems may appear later. Pre natally exposed children showed abnormal EEG brain wave activity, lower intelligence test scores, and rates of language and emotional disorders 2 to 3 times greater than those of nonexposed children.

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Effects of mercury

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physical deformities, mental retardation, abnormal speech, difficulty in chewing and swallowing, and uncoordinated movements. High levels = brain damage

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Effects of lead

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pre maturity, low birth, weight, brain damage, and wide variety of physical defects. Even low levels may be dangerous.

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Effects of infections

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Rubella: aka 3 day or german measles, is a well known teratogen. Greatest damage when rubella strikes during embryonic period. More than 50 percent of infants whose mothers become ill during that time show eye cataracts; deafness; heart, genital, urinary, and intestinal defects; and mental retardation.

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Maternal Factors

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Exercise and nutrition

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3 periods of natal development

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Zygote, embryo, and fetus

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Zygote period

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• This period lasts about two weeks (from fertilization to implantation on the wall of the uterus)
• Period of time in which the cells are dividing to form a blastocyst (hollow, fluid-filled ball of cells) after about 4 days
• Implantation occurs between the seventh or ninth day
• About 30% of zygotes do not survive this stage
• End of the second week another membrane begins to appear
• Chorion- villi (blood vessels) begin to appear
• This turns into the development of the placenta

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Embryo period

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• Lasts from implantation through the eight week of pregnancy, period of most rapid changes
• During the first week three layers of cells form: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm
• Second month
• Ears, eyes, nose, jaw and neck form
• Arms, legs, fingers and toes appear from buds
• Heart develops separate chambers, intestines grow
• Liver and spleen begin production of blood
• Can begin to sense world

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Ectoderm

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will become the nervous system and skin

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Mesoderm

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muscles, skeleton, circulatory system and other internal organs

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Endoderm

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digestive system, lungs, urinary tract and glands

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Fetus period

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• From ninth week to the end of pregnancy
• Organs, muscles and nervous system start to become organized and connected
• By the 12th week external genitals are developed so sex is apparent through ultrasound
• Heartbeat can now be heard through stethoscope
• Fingernails, toenails, tooth buds and eyelids appear

Includes 2nd and 3rd trimesters

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Second trimester

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• By about 17-20 weeks the mother can begin to feel its movement
• Vernix covers the fetus to protect it against chapping
• Lanugo covers the body, helping the vernix to stick
• Many organs are well-developed

• Brain weight increases tenfold from the twentieth week to birth because of addition of glial cells
• 20 week old fetus can be stimulated by lights and sounds
• Can’t survive if it’s born

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Third trimester

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• Age of viability: age a baby can survive is between 22 and 26 weeks
• Cerebral cortex enlarges
o Brain begins to develop characteristic grooves to increase surface area without increasing head size
• Coordinated neural networks are forming in brain
o Patterns of sleep and waking
• Personality begins to form
o Higher active fetus usually results in a more active infant in the first month of life
• Pain sensitivity forms
• Can distinguish tones and rhythm of different voices and sounds
• Gains more than 5 pounds and grows 7 inches
• Beings to move less
• In the eight month a layer of fat develops to help with temperature regulation
• Receives antibodies from mother’s blood to protect against illness
• Takes an upside down position since head is heavier than feet

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Life span of sperm

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o “female” sperm-shorter tails, bigger heads, live longer and swim slower
o “male” sperm-longer tails, smaller heads, live shorter and swim fast
o Most active after 48 hours after ejaculation, can live up to 6 days
o Female can live longer
o Most conceptions occur in a three day period
o 200,000,000-400,000,000: sperm released
o Only 1,000 can reach egg
• natural acidity, wrong tube, give up
o Very few reach the egg, and usually only one are able to fertilize it

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Infant mortality in the US

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o Despite having advanced health care technology, the United States has a high infant mortality rate (6.6 deaths per 1,000 births)
o Ranks 26th internationally
o Less programs designed to reduce infant deaths
• Weak health care programs for mothers and young children
o Poor ethnic minorities are at the greatest risk
o Neonatal mortality, rate of death within the first month of life, accounts for 67% of the infant mortality rate