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141 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Sociobiology
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The application of evolutionary biology to understanding the social behavior of animals, including humans; controversional; sexual behavior in social behavior; use observations of animal behavior to understand how certain patterns have evolved in humans
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Evolution
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a theory that all living things have acquired their present forms through gradual changes in their genetic endowment over successive generations; Producing lots of viable, healthy offspring to carry on one’s genes
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Natural Selection
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Darwin, the process by which the animals are best adapted to their environment are more likely to survive, reproduce and pass on their genes to the next generation
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How do humans choose mates?
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Physical attraction, personality, characteristic traits, common interests, social interaction + compatibility religious groups and common shared interests
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Why do we want attractive mates?
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Health--> reproduction –increase likelihood of reproductive success (men’s ability to provide support for offspring, women’s ability to successfully reproduce and nurture offspring)
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Sexual Selection
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Darwin-specific type of selection that creates differences between males and females--> two processes 1) competition among members of one gender, usually males for mating access of other gender 2) preferential choice by members of one gender (usually female) for certain members of the other gender
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Pair-Bonding
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an offspring’s chance of survival is greater if the parents love each other and if they have a propensity for attachment; more frequent interaction and pleasurable consequences of sex
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Biological children vs. Step children
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parents more interested in survival and reproduction of offspring
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How do males compete with one another?
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Display material resources, charming, characteristics, money, possessions, and personality
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Evolutionary Psychology
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focuses on psychological mechanisms that have been shaped by natural selection
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Sexual Strategies
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Females and males face different adaptive problems in short term casual dating and long term mating and reproduction which lead to different strategies for solving problems (ex. Male-choosing sexually available female for short term but avoid that type of women for long term)
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Sigmund Freud
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Viennese, 1856-1939, Psychoanalysis communications theory
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Media 3 types of influence
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cultivation, agenda setting, social learning
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Cultivation
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In communication theory, the view that exposure to the mass media makes people think what they see represents the mainstream of what really occurs in our culture
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Agenda Setting
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In comm theory, the idea that the media define what is important and what is not by which stories they cover--> news reporters select what to report/ignore/emphasize
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What are the three psychological theories?
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Psychoanalytic, learning, cognitive
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Social Learning
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In comm theory, the idea that the media provides role models whom we imitate without even realizing
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Psychoanalytic theory
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Freud, psychological theory--> giving full treatment to human sexuality, sex drive (libido, part of human personality is unconscious); id, ego, superego (three parts of human personality); very influential; Freud viewed sex as one of the key forces in human life
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Libido
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Freud, psychoanalytic theory meaning sex energy or sex drive (one of two major forces motivating human behavior); focused on various regions of the body known as erogenous zones
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3 parts of human personality according to Freud
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Id, Ego, Superego
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Id
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Basic part of personality present at birth; includes libido; operates on pleasure principle; Ex. “I want to have sex with her now on that table”; irrational; psychic energy
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Ego
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Operates on reality principle, tries to keep id in line; tries to make person have realistic, rational interactions with others, Ex. “Well have sex at a more appropriate time later, after this meeting” ; develops when child learns how to interact realistically with their environment and the people in it
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Superego
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Conscience, values, ideals; operates on idealism, inhibits impulses from id and persuades ego to strive for moral goals, Ex. “I can’t have sex with him because I am married”; develops last when child learns moral values determined by culture and society
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Erogenous Zones
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Libido focused here, part of skin or mucous membrane extremely sensitive to stimulation: touching in certain ways stimulates pleasure, ex. 1) lips/mouth2)genitals3) anus
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States of psychosexual development
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Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital
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Oral
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birth-1 year; sucking, mouth stimulation
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Anal
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2 years old-child; focus--> elimination
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Phallic
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3 years old-5- boys interest in penis & Masturbating, Oedipus complex, penis envy, Electra complex
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Latency
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stage after Oedipus or Electra complex lasting until adolescence where sexual impulses are repressed
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Genital
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Puberty, sexual urges (genital, oral, anal)
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Oedipus Complex
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boy loves mother; desires her sexually; hostility towards father but fears his penis will be castrated by him (castration anxiety)
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Castration Anxiety
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boy fears penis will be cut off by father so he shifts to identifying with his father
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Penis Envy
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during phallic stage, girl realizes she has no penis
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Electra Complex
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girl desires her father and wishes to be impregnated in replacement for having no penis
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Problems with Freud Theories
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male centered, assuming females are biologically inferior to males, why is penis so valuable (feminists), most concepts cannot be tested scientifically in psychoanalytic theory, data gathered from clients in psychotherapy and therefore not representative, overemphasized biological determinism
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Psychoanalytic vs. learning
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psychoanalytic theory holds that determinants of sexual behavior occur in childhood and learning theorists believe that the sexual behavior can be learned or changed across the lifespan
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Learning Theory
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Sexual Behavior that is learned, evidence of studies of sexual behavior across human societies, variation across cultures and societies; classical conditioning
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Classical Conditioning
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Russian Scientist; Pavlov; process of learning; introducing stimulus such as bell and pairing it with food; fetishes pairing it with original unconditioned stimulus ex. Sexual touching and cologone;sexual touching—arousal, cologne, arousal
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Operant Conditioning
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Skinner; person performs particular behavior that may be followed by a reward or punishment if reward follows; likely to repeat if punishment follows; less likely to repeat ex. Sexually transmitted infection and unprotected sexual intercourse, masturbation
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Behavior Modification
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set of techniques based on principles of classical or operant conditioning used to modify behavior (sexual behaviors) ex. Olfactory aversion therapy
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Olfactory Aversion Therapy
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technique used to modify sexual behavior; problematic behavior punished by using aversive stimulus; repeating pairing of behavior and aversive stimulus should result in extinction; unpleasant odor
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Social Learning Theory
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Bandura-operant conditioning + imitation and identification-used in process of explaining development of gender identity or ones sense of maleness or femaleness, ex. Girl imitates mother dressing up
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Self efficiency
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Sense of competence at performing an activity
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Cognitive Theory
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cognitive revolution-studying peoples thoughts replaced studying behaviors; what we think influences what we feel; how we perceive a sexual event is critical (ex. Erection); perception, labeling and evaluating events; applied to sexual arousal, variations and causes and treatment of sexual disorders, understanding sex and gender (gender schema theory)
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Social Exchange Theory
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based on principle of reinforcement that assures people will choose actions that maximize rewards and minimize costs-->relationships solely for profitable outcomes
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Matching hypothesis
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Men and women will choose mates who match them on physical and social characteristics
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Gender Schema Theory
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gender role development and impact of gender on people’s daily lives and thinking-we all have cognitive structure compromising set of attributes (behaviors, personality, appearance) that we associate with males and females—in study children recalled stereotypes; used to explain gender role development and impact of gender on peoples thinking and behavior; everyone possesses a gender schema; set of attributes such as behaviors, personality and appearance associated with males and females; predisposed us to process information on the basis of gender----*** people will distort memories to make them consistent with gender schemas...stereotypes, heteronormativity
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Schema
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General knowledge frame work that a person has about a particular topic; organizes and guides perceptions; can help us remember or can distort memory, particularly if even is inconsistent with out schema
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Sociologists 3 basic assumptions
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1) every society regulates the sexuality of its members 2) basic institutions of society such as religion and family affect the rules governing sexuality in that society3) the appropriateness or inappropriateness of a particular sexual behavior depends on the culture in which it appears (what is sexually appropriate in the US may not be sexually appropriate in Europe)
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Medicalization of Sexuality
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The process by which certain sexual behaviors or conditions are defined in terms of health and illness, and problematic experiences or practices are given medical treatment (ex. Erectile dysfunction + female orgasmic dysfunction)
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Symbolic interaction theory
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human nature and the social order products of symbolic communication among people
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Sexual Scripts
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sexual behavior scripted, who, what, where, why , when; learned outcomes of social influences; any sexual behavior that is learned (sexual behavior is a result of prior learning that teaches us the etiquette of sexual behavior); help us remember past behavior (ex. First date script-get dressed, pick up, get to know, evaluate, eat dinner, make out, go home)
Reiss: all societies believe in sexuality and have |
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Reiss
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all societies believe in sexuality and have interest in a way of regulating or promoting it
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2 components making sexuality important
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sexuality is associated with physical pleasure, sexual interactions are associated with personal disclosure
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sexuality linked to 3 key structures in any society
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Kinship defining what is acceptable, power structure (powerful groups seek to control less powerful groups), cultural ideologies (fundamental assumptions about human nature)
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Macro and Micro
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levels of influence of society occur on
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Macro
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social institutions: religion (shape cultural norms for sexuality and sexual behavior), economy (nature and structure influence sexuality and sexual behaviors), family, medicine (physicians tell us what is or is not healthy), law, discourse or ideology
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Rational Ideology
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sexual exploration outside of marriage, about the self and what is good for my own sexual health at that point and not being tied to a monogamous or marriaged life relationship
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Population
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group of people a researcher wants to study---> make inferences about, ex. All adults, all sex offenders
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Sample
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Part of a population
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Random Sample
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each member of population has equal chance of being sampled
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3 Phases of Sampling
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identify the population of interest, choose method for obtaining sample, recruitment
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Probability Sampling
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Each member of population has a known probability of being included in the sample
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Problem w/ Sampling
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The group of people is not always equal---> likelihood of people refusing to participate
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Volunteers in Sex Research
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more permissive attitudes towards sexuality and sexual behavior, more sexually experienced, more frequent masturbation, more sex partners, men more likely to participate than women
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The problem with refusal or non-response
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when some people refuse to participate in a sex survey; making it difficult to study a random sample--> studying volunteers (volunteer bias)---> more permissive experienced sexually
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Convenience Sample
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Chosen in haphhared manner relative to the population of interest--> not a random or probability sample
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Purposeful Distortion
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people purposely giving false information on a survey/exaggerate or conceal
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Justice Principle
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Ethical principle holds risks of participation should be distributed fairly across groups in society as should the benefits, ex. Studies must be done on men and women of all economic status (cost-benefit approach-analyzing ethics of research study based on weighing the costs of the research, participants time and stress against the benefits of the research)
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Kinsey Report
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Interviewed 5,300 males and 5,940 females, didn’t use probability because of non response, went to IU and Chicago just to collect info, interviews he phrased questions so that they would not hide information ex. “Have you ever masturbated” vs. “At what age did you begin masturbating”; very anonymous
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NHSL
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Laumann, national Health and Social Life survey; face to face interviews; best survey of general population today
problem: age range |
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Magazine Surveys
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problem because magazines attract certain groups of people; not quite accurate
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Snowball Sampling
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Method of acquiring sample of people in which existing participants suggest names of future participants to be recruited
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Primary Principles of Belmont Act
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us department of health and human services: informed consent, protection from harm, justice (risks and benefits should be distributed equally across groups in society)
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Content Analysis
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Set of procedures used to make valid inferences about text--> text can be novels, advice columns, and lyrics, TV shows
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Intercoder Reliability
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in content analysis, correlation or percent of agreement between two coders independently rating the same texts
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Masters & Johnson
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first lab sex studies; masturbation, sex; positive outcomes for participants
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Quantitative Methods
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numerical values; rating views of scale of 1-7; numbers of partners; testing hypothesis
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Qualitative Research
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Naturalistic, holistic methods including participant observation in depth interviewing where results conveyed in words instead of numbers; less people hypothesis
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Ethnography
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Research method used to provide a description of human society
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Participant Observer Technique
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scientist becomes part of the community to be studied and makes observations from inside community
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Correlational Study
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study in which researcher does not manipulate variables but rather studies naturally occurring relationships among variables
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Experiment
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type of study in which one independent variable is manipulated by experimenter while other factors are held constant—studying effects of independent variable on some dependent variable that is measured
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Causal Inference
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researching conclusion that one factor actually causes or influences an outcome
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Correlation
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number that measures relationship between 2 variables
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2 Categories of Female Sex Organs
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external and internal genitals
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External Organs
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clitoris, mons pubis, inner lips (labia minora), outer lips, (labia majora) vaginal opening
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Clitoris
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ghly sensitive sexual organ in female; glans in front of vaginal entrance; rest of clitoris extends deeper into the body--> no direct function to reproduction; consists of glans, shaft, two crura; erectile capabilities
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Mons Pubis
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fatty pad of tissue under pubic hair
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Outer Lips
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rounded pads of fatty tissue lying on either side of the vaginal entrance
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Inner Lips
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Thin folds of skin lying on either side of the vaginal entrance
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Barthoin Glands
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two tiny glands located on either side of vaginal entrance
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Forchette
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Spot where the labia minora and vaginal opening meet
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Pernium
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Skin between vaginal entrance and anus
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Introitus
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Vaginal entrance
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Urethra
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tube through which urine passes from bladder out of the body
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Hymen
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may bleed when losing virginity; a thin membrane may cover the vaginal entrance; indication of virginity but many women are born without hymans and there are injuries unrelated to intercourse that may tear the hymen
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FGM
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FCM: Female Genital (cutting) mutilation; Africa, age 4-10, unsanitary conditions--> more beautiful; erotic; lead to infections and complications with child birth and loss of sexual pleasure; some areas where we believe that between 90 and 100 percent of young girls undergo this
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Vagina
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tube shaped organ, in female, which penis is inserted and which baby passes through; birth canal
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3 Layers of Vaginal Walls
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inner layer (vaginal mucosa), middle layer (muscular), outer layer (covering)
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Internal Female Sex Organs
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Vagina, vestibular bulbs, skenes glands, uterus, pair of ovaries, pair of fallopian tubes
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Puboccygeus Muscle
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Muscle around vaginal entrance
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Vestibular Bulbs
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erectile tissue running under inner lips
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Skenes Gland
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female prostate; lie between the walls of the urethra and vagina, ducts empty into the urethra but can be felt in the front walls of the vagina, secretes fluid that is biochemically similar to male prostate fluid, erogenous zone, size and amount of secretions vary
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Uterus
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organ where fetus develops
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3 Layers of Uterus
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endometrium (inner layer sloughed off during menstrual cycle, state varies according to age of woman and phase of menstrual cycle), mymetrium (middle layer, muscular layer that is responsible for contractions during labor and orgasm), perimetrium (outer layer, forms the external cover of the uterus)
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Corpona Capernosa
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spongy bodies running length of top of penis
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Corpus Spongiosum
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spongy body running length of underside of penis
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Supercision
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Polynesia; form of male genital cutting in which slit made the length of foreskin on top
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Subincision
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Australian Tribes; slit made in lower side of penis along its entire length
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Scrotum
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Pouch of skin that contains testes in the mall
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Seminferous Tubes
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tubes in the testes that manufacture sperm and sex hormones
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Interrestitial Tubes
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Cells in the testes that manufacture testosterone
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Seminal Vesicles
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aclike structures that lie above prostate and produce most of seminal fluid
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Cowper's Glands
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glands that secrete a clear alkaline fluid into males urethra
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Prenatal Period
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time from conception to birth when structural differences between males and females arise in process called prenatal sexual differentiation
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Hormones
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Powerful chemical substances manufactured by the endocrine glands and secreted directly into the blood stream
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Endocrine Glands
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in males they are the testes in females they are the ovaries
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Testosterone
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One of most important sex hormones secreted by testes of males and present at lower levels in females; in androgens-stimulates and maintains secondary sex characteristic
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Most important sex hormones
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testosterone, estrogens, proestrine
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estrogen
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group of female sex hormones; brings puberty changes; growth of uterus and breasts-levels fluctuate according to phases of menstrual cycle and during other stages such as pregnancy and menopause
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proesterone
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sex hormones secreted by ovaries; hormone of pregnancy
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xx, xxy, sry
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XX: Female, XY: Male
XXY: klinfelters syndrome: male has extra x chromosome, testes abnormal no sperm SRY: Sex Determining Region located in Y |
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Intersex
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A condition in which individual has a mix of male and female reproductive structures so it is nuclear at child birth whether male or female; john money was the doctor; David Reimer was born a boy and dressed as a girl and committed suicide
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DSD
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Disorders of Sexual development; newer term for intersex conditions
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CAH
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co genital adrenal hyperplasia: condition where genetic female produces abnormal levels of androgens prenatally and therefore has male appearing genitals at birth
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AIS
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androgen insensitivity syndrome-genetic condition in which body is unresponsive to androgens so genetic male may be born with female appearing body
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Prenatal Androgen Exposure
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gender identity is more consistent with sex of rearing-main reason is the idea of culture and the way of raising is one aspect of DSD where we start seeing nurture come into play more and more
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Gender Identity
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an individuals internal sense of maleness or femaleness
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Assigned Gender
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based on the appearance of the external genitalia at birth; how a child is reared
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John Money
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psychologist and sexologist at johns Hopkins university; coined terms gender identity and gender role; researched biology of gender and sexual identity; controversial similarly to Kinsey; argued that we are gender neutral until a certain age and then it becomes fixed; thought that you could never tell the child truth because this could cause confliction
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David Reimer
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born a twin; circumcision botched and ended up taking entire penis off and couldn’t put it back on so parents consulted in JOHN MONEY and gave him sex reassignment surgery; was a girl until he was 14;testosterone injections; double mastectomy; phalliosphlasty; killed himself
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Milton Diamond
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believed that physicians should make their most informed judgment about the child’s eventual gender identity and counsel parents to rear the child as that gender; do not perform surgeries that may need to be reversed later
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Puberty
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first ejaculation for males and first period for females
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Menarche
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1st menstruation
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4 Phases of Menstration
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follicular phase, ovulation, lutteal phase, and menstruation
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Dysemenorrhea
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Painful menstruation--> caused by prostaglandins (chemicals secreted by the uterus that cause theuretrine muscles to contract)
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Endometriosis
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Condition in which endrometrium grows abnormally outside uterus—painful periods with excessive bleeding
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Amenorrhea
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absence of menstruation
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PMDD
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Premenstrual dysphoric disorder; sadness, anxiety, irritability
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NSSHB
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done at iu, all ages, sex behavior, but the problem was that it was conducted online -- no as in depth because some people dont have computers
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