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90 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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General senses Detected microscopic receptor |
body in the skin, muscles, tendons, joints, and other internal organs of the body responsible for such sensations as pain, temperature, touch, pressure, and body position.
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Special senses |
detected by receptors specific areas and associated with complex structures senses of smell, taste, vision, hearing, and equilibrium are considered special senses because their receptors are grouped within distinct structures that enhance their function.
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Sensory receptor types |
identified structurally according whether they are encapsulated or unencapsulated covered by some sort of capsule or are “free” or “naked” of any such covering.
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Sensory receptor cells Classified by type of stimuli (mode) required to activate receptors |
a. Photoreceptors (light) b. Chemoreceptors (chemicals) c. Pain receptors (injury) d. Thermoreceptors (temperature change) e. Mechanoreceptors (movement or shape change) |
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Sensory pathways All sense organs have common functional characteristics |
1. All are able to detect a particular stimulus 2. A stimulus results in generation of a nerve impulse 3. A nerve impulse is processed and perceived as a sensation in the central nervous system |
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General senses A. Distribution is widespread; single-cell receptors are common B. Mode—the kind of stimulus or change a receptor or sense is able to detect |
a. Free nerve ending — pain, temperature, and crude touch b. Tactile corpuscle (Meissner corpuscle) — fine touch and vibration c. Bulbous corpuscle (Ruffini corpuscle) — touch and pressure d. Lamellar corpuscle (Pacini corpuscle) — pressure and vibration e. Bulboid corpuscle (Krause end bulb) — touch f. Golgi tendon organ — proprioception g. Muscle spindle — proprioception General sense organs are also found in deep organs of the body |
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Special senses Eye (1) Fibrous layer — tough outer coat |
(a) Sclera — “white” of eye (b) Cornea — transparent part over iris (c) Conjunctiva — mucous membrane that covers front of fibrous layer and extends to inside of eyelids (d) Lacrimal gland — secretes tears that moisten conjunctiva |
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2) Vascular layer — has dense network of blood vessels |
a) Choroid — pigmented, melanin-rich layer prevents scattering of light (b) Iris — the colored part of the eye; the pupil is the hole in the center of the iris; contraction of smooth muscle dilates or constricts pupil (see Figure 10-3) (c) Lens — transparent body behind the pupil; focuses or refracts light rays on the retina (d) Ciliary muscle — near front of vascular layer, just outside the edge of the iris; contraction affects shape of lens just behind the iris, thus altering focus for near objects |
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3) Inner layer — innermost sensory layer |
a) Retina — contains various kinds of photoreceptors (see Figure 10-4 and Figure 10-5) i. Rods — receptors for night vision and peripheral vision ii. Cones — receptors for day vision and color vision iii. Ganglion cells — receptors for changing light patterns of days, months, seasons |
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Eye fluids |
(1) Aqueous humor — in the anterior chamber in front of the lens (2) Vitreous humor — in the posterior chamber behind the lens |
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Visual pathway |
a. Vision detects intensity (brightness) and wavelength (color) of light, as well as images and motion b. Light must be refracted (focused) by the eye to form a detectable image c. Innermost layer of retina contains rods and cones d. Impulse travels from the rods and cones through the bipolar and ganglionic layers of retina (see Figure 10-4) e. Nerve impulse leaves the eye through the optic nerve; the point of exit is free of receptors and is therefore called a blind spot f. Visual interpretation occurs in the visual cortex of the cerebrum |
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Hearing and equilibrium |
ear functions in hearing and in equilibrium using receptors called mechanoreceptors |
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Ear a. External ear |
(1) Auricle (pinna) (2) External acoustic canal (see Figure 10-7) (a) Curving canal 2.5 cm (1 inch) in length (b) Contains ceruminous glands (c) Ends at the tympanic membrane |
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2.Middle ear |
(1) Houses ear ossicles — malleus, incus, and stapes (2) Ends in the oval window (3) The auditory (eustachian) tube connects the middle ear to the throat (4) Inflammation called otitis media |
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Inner ear |
1) Bony labyrinth filled with perilymph (2) Subdivided into the vestibule, semicircular canals, and cochlea (3) Membranous labyrinth filled with endolymph |
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Hearing |
a. Hearing detects changes in intensity and frequency (tone) of sound waves, which are pressure waves b. Sound waves funneled by auricle into external acoustic canal and vibrate the tympanic membrane c. Vibrations of tympanic membrane are amplified by auditory ossicles and transmitted to the oval window d. Vibrations of the oval window trigger vibrations of perilymph, which in turn vibrates the endolymph e. Sensory hair cells on the organ of Corti (spiral organ) respond when bent by the movement of surrounding endolymph set in motion by sound waves; can become damaged by chronic exposure to loud noise |
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Equilibrium |
2 types of balance: static and dynamic |
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Static equilibrium (sense of gravity ) |
1) Detected by ciliated hair cells (mechanoreceptors) of the two maculae in the vestibule (2) When the head tilts, gravity pulls the heavy gel of each macula, bending the sensory cilia and producing a nerve signal |
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Vestibular nerve |
carries nerve impulses from the equilibrium receptors of the vestibule; joins with cochlear nerve to form vestibulocochlear nerve (cranial nerve VIII) |
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keratitis |
loss of transparency Inflammation cornea change shape of cornea change ability of eye focus an image on retina.
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Conjunctivitis |
Inflammation membrane caused by bacterial or viral infection allergy environmental factors.
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Presbyopia or “oldsightedness” |
is caused by changes to the lens inside the eye. As people age, the lens becomes harder and less elastic, making it more difficult for the eye to focus on close objects. For centuries presbyopia was corrected with the use of bifocal eyeglasses. |
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Cataract |
long-time exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation in sunlight cause lens become hard lose its transparency become “milky” in appearance. result in blindness. can be removed surgically defective lens replaced with artificial implant.
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Dim light of various wavelengths— or colors— |
stimulate rods giving us monochrome (colorless) vision when lighting is low. |
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Bright light |
stimulate the cones. rods are receptors for night vision cones are receptors for daytime vision. |
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MACULAR DEGENERATION loss of clear “straight-ahead” sight. |
macular area retina degenerates disease progresses over time central visual field gradually lost ability to distinguish fine detail diminishes. peripheral vision remain, AMD patients unable to read drive daily activities |
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severe type of AMD is called “wet” AMD. In these patients |
fragile leaking blood vessels damage the retina over the macula lutea rapid loss of central vision may occur. |
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Myopia, or nearsightedness, |
image focuses in front of the retina rather than on it. retina receives only a fuzzy image. can be corrected by using contact lenses, glasses |
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hyperopia, or farsightedness, If our eyes are shorter than normal |
image focuses behind the retina producing a fuzzy image. can also be corrected by lenses |
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Taste |
1. Sense of taste is also called gustation 2. Receptors are chemoreceptors called gustatory cells, located in taste buds (see Figure 10-12) 3. Cranial nerves VII and IX carry gustatory impulses |
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Primary taste modes |
a. Sweet — detects sugars b. Sour — detects acids c. Bitter — detects alkaline solutions d. Salty — detects sodium ions e. Metallic — detects metal ions f. Umami (savory) — detects glutamate |
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Smell |
1. Olfactory receptors — sensory fibers of olfactory or cranial nerve I lie in olfactory mucosa of nasal cavity (see Figure 10-13) 2. Olfactory receptors are extremely sensitive but easily adapt (become fatigued) 3. Odor-causing chemicals initiate a nervous signal that is interpreted as a specific odor by the brain 4. Olfaction has a strong relationship with emotions and memory |
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Integration of senses |
1. All senses are processed and finally perceived in the brain (not receptors) 2. Sensory information is combined to form an overall sensory perception of our world |
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Flavor |
1) Combination of gustatory and olfactory senses; can be affected by other senses, such as touch, pain, or temperature (2) Nasal congestion interferes with stimulation of olfactory receptors and thereby dulls flavor sensations |
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Posture and balance |
both senses of equilibrium with vision and proprioception — combine to help us maintain a safe body position |
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Some sensory information |
is processed subconsciously |
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Myopia, or nearsightedness, If our eyes are elongated |
image focuses in front of the retina rather than on it. retina receives only a fuzzy image. can be corrected by using contact lenses, glasses |
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Touch receptors |
distributed fingertips (2 to 8 mm apart), relatively close together over the palms (8 to 12 mm) quite far apart over back of the torso (40 to 60 mm). |
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Astigmatism |
abnormal eye condition resulting in blurred vision caused by an irregular curvature of the lens. |
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Color blindness |
inherited condition caused by mistakes producing three chemicals called photopigments in the cones. Each photopigment sensitive to one of three primary colors of light: Green Blue red.
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Acute otitis media. |
red thickened bulging tympanic membran |
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Otitis media |
sore throat may thus spread to produce a middle ear infection |
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“Presbycusis” |
Hearing loss caused by nerve impairment common in the elderly associated with aging results from degeneration of sensory nerve tissue in the ear the vestibulocochlear nerve. |
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EAR External otitis, or swimmer’s ear |
common infection of the external ear in swimmers. bacterial or fungal in origin associated with prolonged exposure to water. The infection generally involves auditory canal auricle. Treatment of swimmer’s ear usually involves antibiotic therapy prescription analgesics.
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Sexual reproduction
Producing offspring |
Sexual reproduction involves two parents (unlike one-parent asexual reproduction); increases variation of genetic traits among offspring of same parents
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Gametes
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sex cells that fuse at fertilization to form a one-celled zygote, the first cell of the offspring
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Sperm
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gamete from the male parent
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Ovum
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gamete from the female parent
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Reproductive hormones
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regulate sexual characteristics that promote successful reproduction
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Puberty
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Ability to reproduce begins
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Male and female systems
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1. Common general structure and function can be identified between the systems in both sexes
2. Systems adapted for development of sperm or ova followed by successful fertilization, development, and birth of offspring 3. Sex hormones in both sexes are important in development of secondary sexual characteristics and normal reproductive system activity |
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Male reproductive system
Structural plan of the reproductive tract (also called urogenital tract) |
1. Organs classified as essential or accessory
2. Essential organs gonads (testes), which produce sex cells (sperm or spermatozoa) |
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Accessory organs of reproduction
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A. Ducts — passageways that carry sperm from testes to exterior
b. Sex glands — produce protective and nutrient solution for sperm c. External genitals |
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Testes — the gonads of men
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Structure and location
a. Testes in scrotum — lower temperature b. Covered by tunica albuginea, which divides testis into lobules containing seminiferous tubules c. Interstitial cells produce testosterone |
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Functions
Spermatogenesis is process of sperm production |
(1) Sperm precursor cells called spermatogonia (2) Meiosis produces primary spermatocyte, which forms four spermatids with 23 chromosomes (3) Spermatozoa — small, mobile cells (see Figure 21-5)
(a) Head contains genetic material (b) Acrosome contains enzymes to assist sperm in penetration of ovum (c) Mitochondria in midpiece provide energy for movement |
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Production of testosterone by interstitial cells
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(1) Testosterone “masculinizes” and promotes development of male accessory organs
(2) Promotes and maintains development of male accessory organs (3) Stimulates protein anabolism and development of muscle strength |
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Reproductive ducts
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ducts through which sperm pass after exiting testes until they exit from the body
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1. Epididymis
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single, coiled tube about 6 meters in length; lies along the top and behind each testis in the scrotum
a. Sperm mature and develop the capacity for motility as they pass through epididymis |
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2. Vas deferens
also called ductus deferens |
a. Receives sperm from the epididymis and transports them from scrotal sac through the abdominal cavity
b. Passes through inguinal canal and then joins duct of seminal vesicle to form the ejaculatory duct |
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Accessory glands
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produce components of semen
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1. Semen — also called seminal fluid
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a. Mixture of sperm and secretions of accessory sex glands
b. Averages 3 to 5 mL per ejaculation, with each milliliter containing about 100 million sperm (but is highly variable, even day to day) |
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2. Seminal vesicles
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a. Pouchlike glands that produce about 60% of seminal fluid volume b. Secretion is yellowish, thick, and rich in fructose to provide energy needed by sperm for motility
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3. Prostate gland
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a. Shaped like a doughnut and located below bladder
b. Urethra passes through the gland c. Secretion represents 30% of seminal fluid volume — is thin and milk-colored d. Activates sperm and is needed for ongoing sperm motility |
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4. Bulbourethral (Cowper) glands
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a. Resemble peas in size and shape b. Secrete mucus-like fluid constituting less than 5% of seminal fluid volume
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E. External genitals (also called genitalia)
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1. Penis and scrotum (see Figure 21-7) 2. Penis has three columns of erectile tissue — two dorsal columns called corpora cavernosa and one ventral column surrounding urethra called corpus spongiosum 3. Glans penis covered by foreskin (prepuce) 4. Surgical removal of foreskin called circumcision
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Female reproductive system
A. Structural plan — organs classified as essential or accessory |
1. Essential organs are gonads (ovaries), which produce sex cells (ova)
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2. Accessory organs of reproduction
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a. Ducts or modified ducts — including oviducts, uterus, and vagina
b. Sex glands — including the breasts c. External genitals |
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B. Ovaries 1. Structure and location
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a. Paired glands weighing about 3 grams each b. Resemble large almonds c. Attached to ligaments in pelvic cavity on each side of uterus d. Microscopic structure
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(1) Ovarian follicles —
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contain an oocyte, which is an immature sex cell (about 1 million at birth)
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(2) Primary follicles
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about 400,000 at puberty are covered with granulosa cells
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(3) About 350 to 500 mature follicles ovulate during the reproductive lifetime of most women
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sometimes called graafian follicles
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(4)antrum
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Secondary follicles have a hollow chamber
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(5) Corpus luteum
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forms after ovulation
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2. Functions
a. Oogenesis |
(1) Involves meiotic cell division that produces daughter cells with equal chromosome numbers (23) but unequal cytoplasm. (2) Ovum is large; polar bodies are small and degenerate
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b. Production of estrogen and progesterone
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(1) Granulosa cells surrounding the oocyte in the mature and growing follicles produce estrogen (2) Corpus luteum produces progesterone (3) Estrogen causes development and maintenance of secondary sex characteristics (4) Progesterone stimulates secretory activity of uterine epithelium and assists estrogen in initiating menses
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C. Reproductive ducts
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1. Both male and female reproductive ducts carry gametes from each (of two) gonads, join into a single passage, and exit the body
2. Only the female ducts also function in receiving sperm, fertilization, and prenatal development
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3. Uterine (fallopian) tubes (oviducts)
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a. Extend about 10 cm from uterus into abdominal cavity b. Expanded distal end surrounded by fimbriae c. Mucosal lining of tube is directly continuous with lining of abdominal cavity
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4. Uterus — composed of body, fundus, and cervix
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a. Lies in pelvic cavity just behind urinary bladder b. Myometrium is muscle layer c. Endometrium lost in menstruation d. Menopause — end of repetitive menstrual cycles (about 45 to 50 years of age)
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5. Vagina
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a. Distensible tube about 10 cm long
b. Located between urinary bladder and rectum in the pelvis c. Receives penis during sexual intercourse and is birth canal for normal delivery of baby at end of term of pregnancy D. Accessory glands |
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2. Breasts
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a. Located over pectoral muscles of thorax b. Size determined by fat quantity more than amount of glandular (milk-secreting) tissue c. Lactiferous ducts drain at nipple, which is surrounded by pigmented areola d. Lymphatic drainage important in spread of cancer cells to other body areas
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E. External genitals
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1. Vulva includes mons pubis, clitoris, external urinary meatus, openings of vestibular glands, vagina, labia minora and majora, and hymen
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2. Perineum
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area between vaginal opening and anus
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episiotomy
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Surgical cut during childbirth called
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F. Menstrual cycle
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involves many changes in the uterus, ovaries, vagina, and breasts
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1. Length
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about 28 days, varies from month to month among individuals and in the same individual
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2. Phases
a. Menses — about the first 4 or 5 days of the cycle, varies somewhat |
(1) Characterized by sloughing of bits of endometrium (uterine lining) with bleeding (2) First day of flow is day 1 of menstrual cycle
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b. Proliferative phase — days between the end of menses and secretory phase; varies in length
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(1) The shorter the cycle, the shorter the proliferative phase; the longer the cycle, the longer the proliferative phase (2) Characterized by proliferation of endometrium
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c. Secretory phase
days between ovulation and beginning of next menses; secretory about 14 days before next menses |
(1) Characterized by further thickening of endometrium (2) Secretion by its glands in preparation for implantation of fertilized ovum
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3. Ovulation
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typically one ovum released per cycle, 14 days before next menses; timing of ovulation is useful in timing sexual intercourse to maximize fertility
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4. Control
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combined actions of the anterior pituitary hormones FSH and LH cause ovulation; sudden sharp decrease in estrogens and progesterone brings on menstruation if pregnancy does not occur
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