1St Semester Exam Review - Psychology, Myers 9Th Edition

Front 1

structuralism

Back 1

An early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind.

Front 2

functionalism

Back 2

A school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes enable us to adapt, survive and flourish.

Front 3

Wilhelm Wundt

Back 3

A professor of Germany's University of Leipzig who created the first experimental apparatus to test mental processes, thus birthing Psychology.

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Edward Bradford Titchener

Back 4

Cornell University faculty who sought to engage participants in introspective reporting to learn about the mind's structures.

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William James

Back 5

Harvard professor and functionalist, who authored Principles of Psychology.

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behaviorism

Back 6

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes.

[most research psychologists today agree with 1 but not 2]

Front 7

humanistic psychology

Back 7

historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth.

Front 8

cognitive neuroscience

Back 8

The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory and language).

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psychology

Back 9

the science of behavior and mental processes.

Front 10

nature-nurture issue

Back 10

longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors.

Front 11

natural selection

Back 11

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

Front 12

levels of analysis

Back 12

the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon.

Front 13

biopsychosocial approach

Back 13

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological and social-cultural levels of analysis.

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basic research

Back 14

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.

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applied research

Back 15

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.

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counseling psychology

Back 16

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (school, work, marriage) and in achieving greater well-being.

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clinical psychology

Back 17

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses and treats people with psychological disorders.

Front 18

psychiatry

Back 18

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy.

Front 19

hindsight bias

Back 19

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it; "knew–it–all–along" phenomenon.

Front 20

scientific attitude
[comprised of 3 main components]

Back 20

curiosity, skepticism, humility before nature.

"a curious eagerness to skeptically scrutinize competing ideas and an open–minded humility before nature."

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critical thinking

Back 21

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions.

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theory

Back 22

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

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hypothesis

Back 23

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

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operational definition

Back 24

a statement of the procedures used to define research variables.

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replication

Back 25

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

Front 26

case study

Back 26

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Front 27

survey

Back 27

a technique for ascertaining the self–reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

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population

Back 28

all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.

Front 29

random sample

Back 29

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

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naturalistic observation

Back 30

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

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correlation

Back 31

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

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correlation coefficient

Back 32

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (+1 to –1)

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scatterplots

Back 33

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables.

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negative correlation

Back 34

two sets of scores relate "inversely," meaning one set goes up as the other goes down.

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positive correlation

Back 35

two sets of scores rise and fall together.

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illusory correlation

Back 36

the perception of a relationship where none exists.

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experiment

Back 37

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (dependent variable).

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random assignment

Back 38

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing pre–existing differences between those assigned to the different groups.

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double–blind procedure

Back 39

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo.

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placebo effect

Back 40

Latin for "I shall please;"
results caused by expectations alone.

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experimental group

Back 41

in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

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control group

Back 42

in an experiment, the group that is NOT exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

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double–blind procedure

Back 43

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo.

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independent variable

Back 44

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

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dependent variable

Back 45

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulation of the _________ variable.

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mode

Back 46

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

Front 47

experimental group

Back 47

in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

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mean

Back 48

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

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median

Back 49

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

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range

Back 50

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

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standard deviation

Back 51

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean (average) score.

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skewed distribution

Back 52

when a few extremes "skew" the fulcrum point of a distribution.

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statistical significance

Back 53

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

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normal curve
(normal distribution)

Back 54

a symmetrical, bell–shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data. Most scores fall near the mean (average) [68% fall within one standard deviation of it] and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

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culture

Back 55

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

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biological psychology

Back 56

a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior.

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neuron

Back 57

a nerve cell

the basic building block of the nervous system.

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sensory neurons

Back 58

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.

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motor neurons

Back 59

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands.

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interneurons

Back 60

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

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dendrite

Back 61

the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.

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axon

Back 62

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

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myelin sheath

Back 63

a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons.

enables speedier transmission speed of neural impulses.

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action potential

Back 64

a neural impulse.

a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.

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threshold

Back 65

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

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synapse

Back 66

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron.

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neurotransmitters

Back 67

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons.

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reuptake

Back 68

a neurotransmitters reabsorption by the sending neuron.

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endorphins

Back 69

natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

translates to "morphine within"

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nervous system

Back 70

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.

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central nervous system (CNS)

Back 71

the brain and spinal cord (grouped into...)

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peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Back 72

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body.

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nerves

Back 73

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.

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somatic nervous system

Back 74

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles.

Also called the "skeletal nervous system"

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autonomic nervous system

Back 75

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs.

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sympathetic nervous system

Back 76

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.

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parasympathetic nervous system

Back 77

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.

Front 78

two divisions of the autonomic nervous system

Back 78

sympathetic, parasympathetic

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reflex

Back 79

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus.

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endocrine system

Back 80

the body's "slow" chemical communication system.

a set of glands that secrete hormones into the blood stream.

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hormones

Back 81

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands.

they travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissue.

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adrenal glands

Back 82

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones that help arouse the body in times of stress.

secrete: epinephrine and norepinephrine

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two hormones secreted by adrenal glands

Back 83

epinephrine and norepinephrine

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pituitary gland

Back 84

Under the influence of the hypothalamus, this gland regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

the endocrine system's most influential gland.

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lesion

Back 85

tissue destruction.

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electroencephalogram
(EEG)

Back 86

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface.

Front 87

positron emission tomography scan
(PET)

Back 87

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

Front 88

magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI)

Back 88

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer–generated images of soft tissue.

These scans show brain anatomy.

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functional MRI
(fMRI)

Back 89

a technique for revealing bloodflow and brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans.

These scans show brain function.

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brainstem

Back 90

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull.

Responsible for automatic survival functions.

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medulla

Back 91

the base of the brainstem.

Controls heartbeat and breathing.

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reticular formation

Back 92

a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal.

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thalamus

Back 93

located on top of the brainstem, directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

the brain's sensory switchboard.

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cerebellum

Back 94

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; processes sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance.

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limbic system

Back 95

neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associate with emotions and drives.

Includes: hippocampus, amygdala and hypothalamus.

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amygdala

Back 96

two lima bean–sized clusters in the limbic system, linked to emotion.

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hypothalamus

Back 97

a neural structure lying below the thalamus.

Directs several maintenance activities and helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland.

Linked to emotion and reward.

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cerebral cortex

Back 98

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres.

The body's ultimate control and information–processing center.

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glial cells
(glia)

Back 99

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish and protect neurons.

Front 100

frontal lobes

Back 100

portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements.

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parietal lobes

Back 101

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the read; receives sensory input for touch and body position.

Front 102

occipital lobes

Back 102

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.

Front 103

temporal lobes

Back 103

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear.

Front 104

motor cortex

Back 104

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

Front 105

sensory cortex

Back 105

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

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association areas

Back 106

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions, but in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking and speaking.

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plasticity

Back 107

the brain's ability to change by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.

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neurogenesis

Back 108

the formation of new neurons

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corpos callosum

Back 109

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

Front 110

split brain

Back 110

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers connecting them.

Front 111

behavior genetics

Back 111

the study of relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

Front 112

environment

Back 112

every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.

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chromosomes

Back 113

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes.

Front 114

DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid)

Back 114

a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

Front 115

genes

Back 115

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein.

Front 116

genome

Back 116

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes.

Front 117

identical twins

Back 117

twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms.

Front 118

fraternal twins

Back 118

twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs.

(genetically no closer than siblings, but share a fetal environment)

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temperament

Back 119

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.

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heritability

Back 120

the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

Front 121

interaction

Back 121

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity).

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molecular genetics

Back 122

the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes.

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evolutionary psychology

Back 123

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.

Front 124

natural selection

Back 124

the principle that, among the range of inherited train variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Front 125

mutation

Back 125

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change.

Front 126

gender

Back 126

in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define "male" and "female."

Front 127

culture

Back 127

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

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norm

Back 128

an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe "proper" behavior.

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personal space

Back 129

the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies.

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individualism

Back 130

giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications.

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collectivism

Back 131

giving priority to goals of one's group (extended family, work group) and defining one's identity accordingly.

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X chromosome

Back 132

the sex chromosome found in both men and women.

Front 133

Y chromosome

Back 133

the sex chromosome found only in males.

Front 134

testosterone

Back 134

the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional amount in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of male sex characteristics during puberty.

Front 135

role

Back 135

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.

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gender role

Back 136

a set of expected behaviors for males or for females

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gender identity

Back 137

our sense of being male or female

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gender typing

Back 138

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.

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social learning theory

Back 139

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.

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sensation

Back 140

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

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perception

Back 141

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

Front 142

bottom–up processing

Back 142

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

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top–down processing

Back 143

information processing guided by higher–level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

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psychophysics

Back 144

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them

Front 145

absolute threshold

Back 145

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

Front 146

signal detection theory

Back 146

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise).

Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation and level of fatigue.

Front 147

subliminal

Back 147

below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness

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priming

Back 148

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory or response

Front 149

difference threshold

Back 149

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time.

We experience the difference threshold as a "just noticeable difference" or jnd.

Front 150

Weber's law

Back 150

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two simuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount).

Front 151

sensory adaptation

Back 151

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

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transduction

Back 152

conversion of one form of energy into another.

In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells into neural impulses our brains can interpret

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wavelength

Back 153

the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next.

Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission.

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hue

Back 154

the demension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light.

(what we know as certain colors)

Front 155

intensity

Back 155

the amount of energy, in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude

Front 156

pupil

Back 156

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

Front 157

iris

Back 157

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the puil and controls the size of the pupil opening

Front 158

lens

Back 158

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

Front 159

retina

Back 159

the light–sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

Front 160

accommodation

Back 160

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

Front 161

rods

Back 161

retinal receptors that detect black, white and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

Front 162

cones

Back 162

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well–lit conditions.

The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations

Front 163

optic nerve

Back 163

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

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blind spot

Back 164

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there.

Front 165

fovea

Back 165

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster

Front 166

feature detectors

Back 166

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, of movement.

Front 167

parallel processing

Back 167

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision.

Contrasts with the step–by–step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

Front 168

Young–Helmholtz trichromatic theory

Back 168

the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors – one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue – which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color

Front 169

opponent–process theory

Back 169

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red–green, yellow–blue, white–black) enable color vision.

For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red, others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green.

Front 170

frequency

Back 170

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second)

Front 171

pitch

Back 171

a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency

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middle ear

Back 172

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window.

Front 173

cochlea

Back 173

a coiled, bony, fluid–filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses.

Front 174

inner ear

Back 174

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

Front 175

place theory

Back 175

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated

Front 176

frequency theory

Back 176

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch

Front 177

conduction hearing loss

Back 177

hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

Front 178

sensorineural hearing loss

Back 178

hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves.

Also called nerve deafness

Front 179

cochlear implant

Back 179

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

Front 180

kinesthesis

Back 180

the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

Front 181

vestibular sense

Back 181

the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance

Front 182

gate–control theory

Back 182

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain.

The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain

Front 183

sensory interaction

Back 183

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

Front 184

gestalt

Back 184

an organized whole.

Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes

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figure–ground

Back 185

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).

Front 186

grouping

Back 186

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups.

proximity, similarity, continuity, connectedness and closure

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depth perception

Back 187

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two–dimensional.

Allows us to judge distance

Front 188

visual cliff

Back 188

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

Front 189

binocular cues

Back 189

depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes.

Front 190

retinal disparity

Back 190

a binocular cue for perceiving depth.

By comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance – the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

Front 191

monocular cues

Back 191

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone.

Front 192

phi phenomenon

Back 192

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

Front 193

perceptual constancy

Back 193

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, lightness & color) even as illumination and retinal images change

Front 194

color constancy

Back 194

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

Front 195

perceptual adaptation

Back 195

in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field

Front 196

perceptual set

Back 196

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

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human factors psychology

Back 197

a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use

Front 198

extrasensory perception (ESP)

Back 198

the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input.

Includes: telepathy, clairvoyance and precognition

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parapsychology

Back 199

the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis

Front 200

telepathy

Back 200

mind–to–mind communication

Front 201

clairvoyance

Back 201

perceiving remote events

Front 202

precognition

Back 202

perceiving future events

Front 203

consciousness

Back 203

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

Front 204

cognitive neuroscience

Back 204

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition.

(perception, thinking, memory, language)

Front 205

dual processing

Back 205

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

Front 206

selective attention

Back 206

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.

Front 207

inattentional blindness

Back 207

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.

Front 208

change blindness

Back 208

failing to notice changes in the environment

Front 209

circadian rhythm

Back 209

regular bodily rhythms (temperature, wakefulness) that occur on a 24–hour cycle.

"the biological clock"

Front 210

REM sleep

Back 210

rapid eye movement sleep

a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur.

(aka paradoxical sleep)

Front 211

alpha waves

Back 211

relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.

Front 212

sleep

Back 212

periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness.

(distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, anesthesia or hibernation)

Front 213

hallucinations

Back 213

false sensory experiences – seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

Front 214

delta waves

Back 214

large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.

Front 215

insomnia

Back 215

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.

Front 216

narcolepsy

Back 216

sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks.

Front 217

sleep apnea

Back 217

sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations (stopping) of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.

Front 218

night terrors

Back 218

sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified.

Seldom remembered.

Front 219

dream

Back 219

a sequence of images, emotions and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind.

Front 220

manifest content

Back 220

the remembered story line of a dream, according to Freud.

Front 221

latent content

Back 221

the underlying meaning of a dream, according to Freud.

Front 222

REM rebound

Back 222

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)

Front 223

hypnosis

Back 223

a social interaction in which one person (charge) suggests to another (subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts or behaviors will spontaneously occur.

Front 224

posthypnotic suggestion

Back 224

a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized.

(used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors)

Front 225

dissociation

Back 225

a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others.

Front 226

psychoactive drug

Back 226

a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods.

Front 227

tolerance

Back 227

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect.

Front 228

withdrawal

Back 228

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug.

Front 229

physical dependence

Back 229

a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued.

Front 230

psychological dependence

Back 230

a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions.

Front 231

addiction

Back 231

compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences.

Front 232

depressants

Back 232

drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.

(alcohol, barbiturates, opiates)

Front 233

barbiturates

Back 233

drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system (CNS), reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment.

Front 234

opiates

Back 234

depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.

(opium, morphine, heroin)

Front 235

stimulants

Back 235

drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

(amphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy)

Front 236

amphetamines

Back 236

drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded–up body functions and associated energy and mood changes.

Front 237

methamphetamines

Back 237

powerfully addictive drug that stimulate the central nervous system (CNS) with speeded–up body functions and associated energy and mood changes.

Over time, reduces baseline dopamine levels.

Front 238

Ecstasy

Back 238

(MDMA) a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with health risks to serotonin–producing neurons, mood and cognition.

Front 239

hallucinogens

Back 239

psychedelic drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.

"Mind manifesting;"

Front 240

LSD

Back 240

a powerful hallucinogenic drug.

(lysergic acid diethylamide)

Front 241

THC

Back 241

the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects including mild hallucinations.

(delta–9–tetrahydrocannabinol)

Front 242

near–death experience

Back 242

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death.

Similar to drug–induced hallucinations.

Front 243

zygote

Back 243

the fertilized egg;

it enters a 2–week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

Front 244

embryo

Back 244

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the 2nd month

Front 245

fetus

Back 245

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

Front 246

teratogens

Back 246

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

Front 247

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS(

Back 247

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking.

In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions.

Front 248

habituation

Back 248

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation.

As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner

Front 249

maturation

Back 249

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

Front 250

cognition

Back 250

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating

Front 251

schema

Back 251

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Front 252

assimilation

Back 252

interpreting our new experience in terms of our existing schemas

Front 253

accommodation

Back 253

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

Front 254

sensorimotor stage

Back 254

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

Front 255

object permanence

Back 255

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

Front 256

preoperational stage

Back 256

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

Front 257

conservation

Back 257

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

Front 258

egocentrism

Back 258

in Piaget's theory, the peroperational child's difficulty taking another point of view

Front 259

theory of mind

Back 259

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states – about their feelings, perceptions and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict

Front 260

concrete operational stage

Back 260

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

Front 261

formal operational stage

Back 261

In Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about 12 years) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Front 262

autism

Back 262

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind

Front 263

stranger anxiety

Back 263

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

Front 264

attachment

Back 264

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

Front 265

critical period

Back 265

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development

Front 266

imprinting

Back 266

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

Front 267

basic trust

Back 267

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy.

Said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

Front 268

self–concept

Back 268

our understanding and evaluation of who we are

Front 269

adolescence

Back 269

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.

Front 270

puberty

Back 270

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproduction

Front 271

primary sex characteristics

Back 271

the body structures that make sexual reproduction possible.

(ovaries, testes, external genitalia)

Front 272

secondary sex characteristics

Back 272

non–reproductive sexual characteristics

(breasts, hips, body hair, etc)

Front 273

identity

Back 273

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

Front 274

social identity

Back 274

the "we" aspect of our self–concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

Front 275

intimacy

Back 275

in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood

Front 276

emerging adulthood

Back 276

for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to early twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood

Front 277

menopause

Back 277

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

Front 278

cross–sectional study

Back 278

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

Front 279

longitudinal study

Back 279

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

Front 280

crystallized intelligence

Back 280

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills.

Tends to increase with age

Front 281

fluid intelligence

Back 281

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly.

Tends to decrease during late adulthood

Front 282

social clock

Back 282

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood and retirement

Front 283

Personality

Back 283

an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

Front 284

Free Association

Back 284

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing

Front 285

Unconscious

Back 285

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware

Front 286

Psychoanalysis

Back 286

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

Front 287

Id

Back 287

contains a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification

Front 288

Ego

Back 288

the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain

Front 289

Superego

Back 289

the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations

Front 290

Psychosexual stages

Back 290

the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones

Front 291

Oedipus

Back 291

according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father

Front 292

Indentification

Back 292

the process by which a child adopts the values and principles of the same-sex parent

Front 293

Fixation

Back 293

according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved

Front 294

defense mechanism

Back 294

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

Front 295

Regression

Back 295

psychoanalytic defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated

Front 296

Reaction Formation

Back 296

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. Thus, people may express feelings that are the opposite of their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings.

Front 297

Projection

Back 297

(psychiatry) a defense mechanism by which your own traits and emotions are attributed to someone else

Front 298

Rationalization

Back 298

defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions

Front 299

Displacement

Back 299

psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet

Front 300

Denial

Back 300

a defense mechanism by which to believe or even to perceive painful realities.

Front 301

Collective Unconscious

Back 301

Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history

Front 302

Projective Test

Back 302

a personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics

Front 303

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Back 303

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes

Front 304

Rorshach Inkblot Test

Back 304

The most widely used projective test, as set of 10 inkblots, the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots

Front 305

Terror-Management Theory

Back 305

a theory of death-related anxiety; explores people's emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death

Front 306

Self-Actualization

Back 306

according to Maslow, the ultimate psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential

Front 307

Unconditional Positive Regard

Back 307

according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person

Front 308

Self-Concept

Back 308

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

Front 309

Trait

Back 309

a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports

Front 310

Personality Inventory

Back 310

a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.

Front 311

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

Back 311

the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.

Front 312

Empirically Derived Test

Back 312

a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups

Front 313

Social-cognitive perspective

Back 313

views behavior as influenced by the interaction between persons (and their thinking) and their social context

Front 314

Reciprocal Determinism

Back 314

the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment

Front 315

Personal Control

Back 315

the extent to which people perceive control over their environment rather than feeling helpless

Front 316

External Locus of Control

Back 316

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate

Front 317

Internal Locus of Control

Back 317

the perception that one controls one's own fate

Front 318

Learn Helplessness

Back 318

The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

Front 319

Positive Psychology

Back 319

the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive.

Front 320

Self

Back 320

in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions

Front 321

Spotlight Effect

Back 321

overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us)

Front 322

Self-esteem

Back 322

one's feelings of high or low self-worth

Front 323

Self-serving bias

Back 323

a readiness to perceive oneself favorably

Front 324

associative learning

Back 324

learning that certain events occur together.

The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (operant conditioning).

Front 325

classical conditioning

Back 325

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more simuli and anticipate events

Front 326

behaviorism

Back 326

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes.

Most research psychologists agree with (1) but not (2).

Front 327

unconditioned response (UR)

Back 327

in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

Front 328

unconditioned stimulus (US)

Back 328

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally – naturally and automatically– triggers a response.

Front 329

conditioned response (CR)

Back 329

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

Front 330

conditioned stimulus (CS)

Back 330

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

Front 331

acquisition

Back 331

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response.

in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

Front 332

higher–order conditioning

Back 332

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus.

Also called second–order conditioning.

Front 333

extinction

Back 333

the diminishing of a conditioned response (CR).

Occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

Front 334

spontaneous recovery

Back 334

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response (CR)

Front 335

generalization

Back 335

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

Front 336

discrimination

Back 336

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (CS) and stimuli that do not signal and unconditioned stimulus (US).

Front 337

respondent behavior

Back 337

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

Front 338

operant conditioning

Back 338

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

Front 339

operant behavior

Back 339

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

Front 340

law of effect

Back 340

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Front 341

operant chamber

Back 341

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as the Skinner Box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

Front 342

shaping

Back 342

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Front 343

reinforcer

Back 343

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Front 344

positive reinforcement

Back 344

increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli.

A "positive reinforcer" is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens that response.

Front 345

negative reinforcement

Back 345

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli.

A "negative reinforcer" is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response.

Front 346

primary reinforcer

Back 346

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

Front 347

conditioned reinforcer

Back 347

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer.

Also known as a secondary reinforcer

Front 348

continuous reinforcement

Back 348

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

Front 349

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

Back 349

reinforcing a response only part of the time.

Results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

Front 350

fixed–ratio schedule

Back 350

reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

Front 351

variable–ratio schedule

Back 351

reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Front 352

fixed–interval schedule

Back 352

reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

Front 353

variable–interval schedule

Back 353

reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

Front 354

cognitive map

Back 354

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment

Front 355

latent learning

Back 355

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Front 356

intrinsic motivation

Back 356

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

Front 357

extrinsic motivation

Back 357

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

Front 358

observational learning

Back 358

learning by observing others

Front 359

modeling

Back 359

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Front 360

mirror neurons

Back 360

frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so.

The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy.

Front 361

prosocial behavior

Back 361

positive, constructive, helpful behavior.

The opposite of antisocial behavior.

Front 362

intelligence test

Back 362

A method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores.

Front 363

intelligence

Back 363

Mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

Front 364

general intelligence

Back 364

A general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

Front 365

factor analysis

Back 365

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of permanence that underlie a person's total score.

Front 366

savant syndrome

Back 366

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing

Front 367

creativity

Back 367

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

Front 368

emotional intelligence

Back 368

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

Front 369

mental age

Back 369

a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance.

Front 370

Standford-Binet

Back 370

the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet's original intelligence test.

Front 371

Intelligence quotient

Back 371

defined originally as the ratio of mental age to chronological age. On contemporary intelligence, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.

Front 372

achievement test

Back 372

a test designed to assess what a person has learned

Front 373

aptitude tests

Back 373

a test designed to predict a person's future performance

Front 374

WAIS

Back 374

the most widely used intelligence test, contains verbal and performance subtests

Front 375

standardization

Back 375

defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group

Front 376

normal curve

Back 376

the symmetrical bell shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes

Front 377

reliability

Back 377

the extent to which a test yeilds consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, or on retesting

Front 378

validity

Back 378

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

Front 379

content validity

Back 379

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest

Front 380

predictive validity

Back 380

the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and criterion behavior.

Front 381

mental retardation

Back 381

a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound

Front 382

down syndrome

Back 382

A condition of retardation and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21.

Front 383

stereotype threat

Back 383

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

Front 384

analytical intelligence

Back 384

one of Sternbergs three intelligences. Assesed by an intelligence test. Usually problems with a single right answer

Front 385

practical intelligence

Back 385

one of Sternberg`s three intelligences. required for everyday tasks with mulitiple solutions

Front 386

creative intelligence

Back 386

one of sternberg`s three intelligences. demonstrated in reacting adaptively to novel situations and generating novel ideas

Front 387

expertise

Back 387

one of the 5 compenents of creativity. a well developped base of knowledge that furnishes ideas, images and phrases we use as mental building blocks

Front 388

imaginative thinking

Back 388

one of the 5 compenents of creativity. provides the ability to see things in novel ways and make connections

Front 389

venturesome personality

Back 389

one of the 5 compenents of creativity. seeks new experiences, tolerates ambiguity and risk, perserveres against obstacles.

Front 390

intrinsic motivation

Back 390

one of the 5 compenents of creativity. driven by interests, satisfaction and challenges rather then by external pressure

Front 391

creative environment

Back 391

one of the 5 compenents of creativity. helps spark, support and refine creative ideas

Front 392

heritability

Back 392

the variation in intelligence test scores attributable to genetic factors