Sem, Hist. Ling, Class. Of Langs, Acq., Video

Front 1

Paraphrase

Back 1

- sentences that can have the same meaning (in terms of truth value)
- mutual entailment
- impossible for one to be true w/o other being true
- passive-active
-there is pragmatic diff

Front 2

Entailment

Back 2

- when truth of one sentence guarantees truth of another sentence
- John gave Mary a rose -> John gave Mary a flower
- asymmetrical entailment - cannot conclude the reverse

Front 3

Contradiction

Back 3

- if one sentence is true, then another sentence must be false

Front 4

Connotation

Back 4

- set of associations that word can evoke
- ex: winter -> snow, cold, short days, frozen fingers

Front 5

Denotation/Referents/_______

Back 5

- extension
- the real-world entities to which word refers
- ex: dog - set of canines
- ex: winter - season between winter solstice and spring equinox
- difficult for abstract or fantastical concepts
- may have same referent but does not = same meaning
- ex - speaker of the house, leader of the House Democrats

Front 6

Intension

Back 6

- inherent sense, the concepts evoked
- meaning components that are internal to lang
- Ex- Speaker of House
- intension: leader of majority party in House of Reps
- extension: Nancy Pelosi
- can be mental image - yet problems when have broad word like dog

Front 7

Componential Analysis/ Lexical Decomp

Back 7

- semantic primitives: gender, animacy, adult v nonadult
- allows us to group entities into natural classes

Front 8

Verb Comp Analysis

Back 8

- not binary
-semantic feature "become" underlies verb analysis
- positional (flew), possessional (gave), identificational (turned into)

Front 9

Embedding of semantic features

Back 9

dead = state
died = change of state, become not alive
killed = X causes Y to become not alive
murder = X intentionally...
assassinate = X...prominent Y

Front 10

Fuzzy concepts v discreet concepts

Back 10

- concepts w/o clear-cut boundaries
- no set of necessary and sufficient features
- N & S define the prototype
- members can be graded in terms of typicality
- ex bird: robin, pigeon, stork, penguin
- concepts can overlap

Front 11

Metaphor

Back 11

- understanding one concept in terms of another
- time as commodity
- spatial metaphor
- some seem to be universal

Front 12

Lexicalization

Back 12

- process whereby concepts are encoded in words
- differences here shed light on how lang expresses meaning
- within certain semantic domains (motion verbs), small set of concepts (motion, path) and small set of options for how can be combined for lexicalization
- same realities, yet diff ways of organizing components

Front 13

Motion verb lexicalization

Back 13

- describe motion through space
- systematic diffs in how langs express motion and related concepts
- English - motion and manner (roll) conflation pattern
- Romance - motion and path - entered the cave, rolling
- in English - ascend, descend, return borrowed
- Indian - motion and object
- spherical object for example

Front 14

Grammaticalization

Back 14

- how #, tense, negation , etc coded into language
- concepts used to express grammatical contrasts as affixes and nonlexical cat's

Front 15

Popular grammaticalized concepts

Back 15

tense: past/nonpast
#: sing/(dual)/(trial)/plural

Front 16

Grammaticalized evidentiality contrasts

Back 16

- diff degrees of commitment to truth of what saying
- Hidatsa (Amerindian) 5-way distinction
- grammatical affixes vs lexically expressing it in English

Front 17

modality

Back 17

hopes, expectations

Front 18

Pragmatics

Back 18

- ways in which context contributes to meaning
- speaker and addressee
1)attitudes & beliefs,
2)setting (physical environment),
3) discourse (linguistic context),
4) conversational rules (epistemic context)

Front 19

Nonlinguistic knowledge and belief (pragmatics)

Back 19

- ambiguous structures (anaphoric use of pronouns & co-refereces) not ambiguous bc of our worldview
- judge denied the prisoner bc he was cautious/dangerous

Front 20

presupposition (prag: beliefs)

Back 20

- assumption or belief implied by use of particular word or structure
- certain meanings that are taken for granted/assumed, though not overtly stated
- ex: have you stopped exercising lately? we assume speaker believes listener has been exercising regularly

Front 21

sometimes presupposition embedded (give ex)

Back 21

p = It is odd that [Mary is a feminist]

p = It is not odd that [Mary is a feminist]
- different meanings, but presupposition is same = q

Front 22

Factive verbs

Back 22

verbs that behave certain way toward complements
- p -> q ~p -> q
- negation doesnt affect assertion of presup
- is odd, realize, bother, forget

Front 23

Implicative verbs

Back 23

p -> q ~p -> ~q
- managed, able, bother
- John managed [to kiss Mary]

Front 24

Negative Implicative verbs

Back 24

p -> ~q ~p -> q
- w/o that
- forgot, neglected
- John forgot [to lock the door]

Front 25

Setting

Back 25

the context of communication - some ling expressions cant be determ out of context
- umbrella term for variable that affect interp of utternace
- "I am tired."
- truth value depends on context - WHO the speaker is

Front 26

utterance

Back 26

sentences that are contextualized
vs sentences - abstract entities

Front 27

linguistic context

Back 27

- what has already been said in utterance
- if say Jane Smith, know that is the antecedent of "she"

Front 28

social context

Back 28

social relationship btween speaker and hearer
- social dominance - hierarchical structure (employer-subordinate, teacher-student)
- social distance - familiarity (strangers, friends)

Front 29

epistemic context

Back 29

what speakers know about the world
- birds fly. humans dont.
- I flew means I flew by plane

Front 30

spatial deictics

Back 30

forms whose use and interp depend on location of speaker/hearer
determiners
- this/here (proximity to speaker)
- that/there (proximity to hearer)

Front 31

deictic center

Back 31

center of context (usu perspective of speaker)
- English can project center towards hearer w/ motion verbs
- movement towards hearer is also "come": I will come to your office
- universally, come - mvmt away from speaker
- go - mvmt away from speaker
- bring/take

Front 32

Discourse

Back 32

the connected series of utterances produced during a conversation, lecture, or other speech act
- context of utterances sometime rely on previous utterances
- old info (obvious or already-know) vs new info (introduced) and choice between the and a
- Marking of topics
- strong tenden to treat subjects as topic
- some langs can switch topics by topic markers or restructuring

Front 33

Gricean Conversational Maxims 4

Back 33

1. Relevance - be relevant
2. Quality - don't lie or say things for which have little evidence
3. Quantity - say as much as needed, not more or less
4. Manner - avoid ambiguity and obscurity; be brief and orderly

Front 34

rules of conversation

Back 34

- our understanding of how lang is used in partic situations to convey a message
- what is appropriate/inappropriate

Front 35

conversational implicature

Back 35

as speakers of language, we can draw inferences about what is meant but not actually said

Front 36

implicature v entailment

Back 36

not a manner of truth but reasonable conclusion
- ex: John sends Mary a bouquet every week; John likes Mary
- a reasonable conclusion given what we know about world and conversational rules

Front 37

Our interpretation depends on 3

Back 37

1) what is literally said
2) the maxims
3) the context

Front 38

Cooperative Principle

Back 38

Make your contribution appropriate to the conversation so that each contrib enhances purposes of interaction
- bc human beings are rational and generally WANT to cooperate in interaction
- divided into maxims, guidelines that ensure convos satisfy Cooperative Principle

Front 39

Relevance example

Back 39

- Would you like to go to a movie?
- "I have an exam" means "no" because assume following relevance maxim
- Violation: "It's raining" means you want to change topic of convo
- irony: Where's your steak?, your dog looks happy

Front 40

Quality example

Back 40

- What's the weather like?
- It's snowing
- Person assumes telling truth (i.e. it is snowing)
- Violation: Irony, Sarcasm, Metaphor (figurative lang), Politeness
- ex: iron lady

Front 41

Quantity example

Back 41

- Where does he live (just curious)
- In Maine (sufficient)
- Violation: Prof's letter of recommendation
- implies irony
- also violates rel.

Front 42

Manner example

Back 42

- use briefest and least obscure form
- do not be ambiguous
- Ex: the man who mary lives with
- can conclude man is not husband - bc "husband" would be briefer and less obscure
- Violation: "You will be fortunate if can get him to work for you" - use of ambiguous structure (2-way)
- effect of sarcasm, irony, doubt of sincerity

Front 43

Flouting of maxims

Back 43

- intentional violation of maxim
- in order to send an implicature (inference obtained by hearer)

Front 44

Analytic truth

Back 44

true by virtue of inherent meaning of words
- Kings are monarchs

Front 45

Synthetic truth

Back 45

circumstantially true - depends on particular context
- Kings are rich

Front 46

Analytically false

Back 46

- necessarily false by meaning of its words = contradiction
- Kings are female