Second Language Acquisition

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Access to UGH Hypothesis

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The claim that the innate language facility is operative in second language acquisition and constrains the grammars of second language learners.

Researchers have tried to find out whether L2 learners have access to UG or not.
* Cook (1985) presented three hypotheses:
No access hypothesis: UG is inaccessible to L2 learner Indirect access hypothesis: UG is partially available to the learners through L1
Direct access hypothesis: UG is fully available

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Universal Grammar (UG)

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"It is a theory that suggests that some rules of grammar are hard-wired into the brain, and manifest without being taught."
This theory is Credited to Noam Chomsky

Examples: If human beings grow up under normal conditions (not conditions of extreme deprivation), then they will always develop a language with property X (for example, distinguishing nouns from verbs, or distinguishing function words from lexical words) and therefore property X is a property of universal grammar in this most general sense (here not capitalized).

Also: Universal Grammar is made up of a set of rules that apply to most or all natural human languages. Most of these rules come in the form of "if a language has a feature X, it will also have the feature Y." Rules that are widely considered as part of UG include:
*) If a language is head-initial (like English), it will have prepositional phrases; if and only if it is head-final (like Japanese) will it have post-positional phrases.
*) If a language has a word for purple, it will have a word for red.

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Poverty of the Stimulus

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A proposal made within the confines of UG that input alone is not sufficiently specific to allow a child to attain the complexities of the adult grammar.

Evidence: Children hear only a finite number of sentences. Nevertheless they are able to abstract the rules and principles of the language and to produce an infinite number of possible sentences without any formal training.

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Acculturation Model

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A model consisting of social and affective variables. It is based on the notion that learners need to adapt to the target language culture in order for successful acquisition to take place.

Developed by Schumann

If learners acculturate, they will learn easily; if learners do not acculturate, they will not learn.
Contact is also important. Less contact - less likely to acquire the language.

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affective filter

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Part of the Monitor Model. The claim is that affect is an important part of the learning process and that one has a "raised" or "lowered" affective filter. The latter leads to better learning.

In other words: Language learners have to be receptive to input. When learners are bored, angry, frustrated, nervous, unmotivated or stressed, they may not be receptive to language input and so they 'screen' the input. This screen is referred to as the affective filter. This suggests that when learners are bored, angry, frustrated, nervous, unmotivated or stressed, they may be unsuccessful at learning a second language.

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(linguistic) automaticity

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The degree of routinized control that one has over linguistic knowledge.

In other words: It is a control mechanism we apply when ensuring that our pronunciation, word order, grammar etc. is correct.

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baby talk = caretaker speech = child-directed speech = motherese

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The language addressed to a young child.

It serves to enhance language acquisition. Sentences produced by caretaker when speaking to a child are shorter, well formed, intonation is different than speaking to older children or adults.

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backchannel cues

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Generally, verbal messages such as 'uh huh' and 'yeah' that are said during the time another person is talking. In case of face-to-face conversation head nods can also serve the same function.

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communication strategies

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An approach used by learners when they need to express a concept or an idea in the second language, but do not have or cannot access the linguistic resources to do so.

Example: If a person does not know a word in a foreign (or even native) language and does not have an access to a dictionary, he may produce a sentence to describe it. EG. snow - the white stuff on the ground in winter.

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Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)

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The prediction that similarities between two languages do not require learning and that the differences are what need to be learned, because language transfer from NL to the TL takes place.

The greater the differences between languages, the more errors will occur and the more difficult it is to acquire the language.

Criticism: There occur errors that cannot be predicted considering transferring forms from the NL to the TL (eg. use of irregular verb in the way regular verbs are used 'he comed') and predicted errors do not always happen.

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contrastive analysis (CA)

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A way of comparing two languages to determine similarities and dissimilarities for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in a second-language- learning situation.

CA is based on a behaviourist theory of language that claims that language is habit and that language learning involves the establishment of a new set of habits.

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Error analysis

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A procedure for analyzing second language data that begins with the errors learners make and then attempts to explain them.

Steps for error analysis:
1) Collecty data, 2) Identify errors, 3) Classify errors, 4) Quantify errors (how many of each type of errors occur), 5) analyze source, 6) remediate.

Error analysis provides a broader range of possible explanations than contrastive analysis for researchers/teachers to use to account for errors, as the latter only attributed errors to the NL.
There are 2 error types - interlingual and intralingual.

Criticism - error analysis falls short in the analysis of second language data in that it only sees a partial picture of what a learner produces of the second language.

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mistakes

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Nonsystematic errors that learners produce. These are "correctable" by the learner.

In other words: Mistakes are akin to slips of the tongue. They are generally one-time-only events. The speaker who makes a mistake is able to recognize it as a mistake and correct it if necessary.

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errors

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The incorrect forms that learners produce.

In other words: Occurrence of errors is systematic and is likely to occur repeatedly and is not recognized by the learner as an error (opposed to mistakes).

There are 2 error types: 1) interlingual - can be attributed to the NL (involve cross-linguistic comparisons) ; 2) intralingual - due to the language being learned, independent of the NL, therefore these may occur from speakers of a wide variety of first languages.

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Critical Period Hypothesis

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a notion that there is a limited developmental period during which it is possible to acquire a language be it L1 or L2, to normal, nativelike levels. Once this window of opportunity is passed the ability to learn language declines.

Critical period - a time after which successful language learning cannot take place. Sensitive period - a time during which most successful learning is likely to take place.

Facts: Adults are able to achieve better results on most tests of L2 learning more rapidly than children, at least during the early stages of acquisition. However ability of older learners to quickly learn phonology seems to atrophy rather quickly. Evidence shows that individual generally do not achieve a native-like accent in L2 unless they are exposed to it at an early age. Some studies also show that L2 learners cannot achieve complete mastery of syntax - learner's capabilities for acquiring the syntax of L2 decline with age.
There is some research though that shows that age of learning does not have significant effects that it is more important as to how long language has been studded (or how long the person has stayed in TL culture).

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cross-linguistic influence

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Any language influence from the L1 to the L2, from one intra-language to another or from the L2 bak to the L1.

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language transfer

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The use of the first language (or other language known) in a second language context. Eg. sentence structure, word order etc.

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longitudinal

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a data-gathering procedure in which data are gathered from one or more learners over a prolonged period of time in order to gather information about change over time.

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cross-sectional

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a data-gathering procedure in which data are gathered from groups of learners in order to view particular behaviours across time. One often gathers cross-sectional data from learners at different proficiency levels and infers that the differences represent change over time.

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differentiation

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In the Hierarchy of Difficulty to refer to the situation in which a single form in the native language corresponds to two different forms in the target language.

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Discourse-completion test

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A procedure commonly used in gathering data about inter-language pragmatics and speech acts. Generally a situation is described and learners have to write/say what they would typically say in that particular situation.

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foreigner talk

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The modified language used when addressing a non-native speaker.

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fossilization

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The cessation of learning. Permanent plateaus that learners reach resulting form no change in some or all of their interlanguage forms.

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free variation

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an alternation of possible forms, perhaps randomly

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Fundamental Difference Hypothesis

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the claim that child first language and adult second language acquisition are different.

"Proponents of the FDH take the above observations (and others) to mean that at their core, L1 and L2 acquisition cannot be the same and thus are different. In particular, the FDH claims that, whereas child L1 acquisition is guided by innate mechanisms, adult SLA is guided by general cognitive learning or problem solving principles and not by any innate linguistic knowledge. Thus, implicit in the FDH is that there is probably a critical period for language acquisition, after which such things as Universal Grammar and other language-specific mechanisms are no longer available for learning language. The originator of the hypothesis, and the name most associated with the FDH, is Robert Bley-Vroman."

Benati, Alessandro G.; VanPatten, Bill. Key Terms in Second Language Acquisition.
London, GBR: Continuum International Publishing, 2010. p 99.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/tallinn/Doc?id=10427496&ppg=99
Copyright © 2010. Continuum International Publishing. All rights reserved.

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implicational universals

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Common hierarchies across the world's languages in which particular language elements are predicted by the existence of other language elements.

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input

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The language that is available to learners.

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instrumental motivation

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Motivation that comes from the rewards gained from knowing another language.

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integrative motivation

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Motivation that comes from the desire to acculturate and become part of a target language community.

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intake

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That part of the language input that is internalized by the learner.

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interference

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The use of the first language in a second language context when the resulting second language form is incorrect.

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interlanguage

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The language produced by a nonnative speaker of a language.

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L1, L2

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L1, also NL (native language) - A person's first language
L2 - A person's second language. To be more specific, one could refer to a person's L3, L4 and so on. however the general term L2 is frequently used to refer to any language learning or use after the first language has been learned.
The term 'target language' (TL) is also used meaning the language being learned.

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L1=L2 Hypothesis

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The claim that a second language is acquired in the same manner as a first language.

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Markedness Differential Hypothesis

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A proposal based on the markedness values of different forms. Unmarked forms are learned before marked forms.

Notion of markedness comes from implicational statements. Markedness refers to how typical something is relative to something else. Something less typical is more marked than something more typical. Eg. The thing that implies something else is more marked than the thing implied or the thing implied is less marked than the thing implying it.

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Monitor Model

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A model of second language acquisition based on the concept that learners have two systems (acquisition and learning) and that the learned system monitors the acquired system.

Learning is concious process, acquiring - unconscious.
Acquisition is more important as it is responsible for language use.

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negative evidence

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Information provided to a learner concerning the incorrectness of a form.

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positive evidence

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Evidence based on forms that actually occur.

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overextension

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Using a word with a wider referential range than is correct in standard adult langauge.

Eg. a child using word 'dog' for all animals

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underextension

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Using a word with a narrower referential range than is correct in standard adult language.

Eg. a child using word 'tree' only for trees with leaves.

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prefabricated patterns

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Parts of language that are learned as a whole without knowledge of the component parts.

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second language acquisition (SLA)

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Wide definition: The learning of another language after the first language has been learned.

Narrow definition: Second language learning in environment where it is spoken. (As opposed to foreign language acquisition (FLA) - learning language in environment where it is not spoken as first language)

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typological universals

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Universals derived from an investigation of the commonalities of the world's languages. The goal is to determine similarities in types of languages, including implicational universals.
Typological universals are those aspects of language that are derived from the study of a large sampling of languages and exist as implicational statements; that is, if X is present in a language, then Y is present as well.

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individual differences in SLA

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* Social distance - involves acculturation model
* Age - involves critical period
* Aptitude - ability to learn an L2. It consists of phonemic coding ability, grammatical sensitivity, inductive language learning ability, memory and learning - ability to make associations between words and phrases.
* Motivation - integrative and instrumental
* Anxiety - it is useful to have small portion of anxiety because if the learner is not anxious at all, he is unlikely to be motivated to make any effort
* Locus of control -the extent to which individuals believe that they can control events that affect them. A person has to believe that he can succeed.
* Personality factors: extroversion (better speakers) and introversion; risk taking - good language learners take risks; field independence - a tendency to separate details from the surrounding context. Field-independent learners tend to rely less on the teacher or other learners for support.
* Learning strategies - different strategies at different stages of development.

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social factors and SLA

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* Learner attitudes and attitudes in community - positive attitudes lead to better results than negative attitudes. This involves attitudes towards the target language, speakers, culture, social value of learning, practical use of the TL.
* Age
* Gender - Women show better results in instructed learning and correct production of language, male are better at communication. Male are guided more by instrumental motivation.
* Social class - middle-class children outperform lower-class and working-class children as they have more positive attitudes. It has however been found that in communication social class does not have an effect.
* social context - natural setting of learning - there is a contact with other speakers in a variety of situations; educational settings - learning takes place at classroom. Learners who learn in natural settings achieve greater functional proficiency than those who are learning in educational settings.

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language universals

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see typological universals and Universal Grammar

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child language acquisition

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Stages of Child language acquisition:
0-4m crying; 4-7m Cooing; 6-9m Babbling; 9-18m One word stage; 18-24m Two-word stage; 24-30m Telegraphic speech/early multiword stage; 30+m Later multiword stage.

L1=L2

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input and interaction

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Behaviourism: input plays a central role in language learning. It is language to which the learner is exposed. Speech directed towards young children. Intake - part of the language input that is internalised by the learner. Foreigner talk - simplified speech which the L2 learner will be better able to understand. Consequently learning can take place.
Comprehension, showing understanding with the help of backchannel cues.
Interaction - clarification of the message with a help of confirmation checks (is this what you mean?) or comprehension checks (Do you understand?) and clarification requests (Excuse me can you say one more timr?)
Output has a crucial role in the development of a second language.

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Classroom interaction and SLA

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Language addressed to learners. There sorces of input at classroom: teacher, materials, other learners. Research show that learners do not pick up errors from one another.

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SLA research/ the description of learner's langauge

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Data collection - longitudinal, cross-sectional

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The role of the native language/ internal factors and SLA

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Language transfer

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Variability in learners' language

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Nonsystematic/free variation vs. Systematic variation

As learners enter a stage of development or begin to acquire a new morpheme or formal feature of language, they may demonstrate variable performance. Researchers have posited two kinds of variation: free and systematic. Free variation refers to the seemingly random use of two or more formal features to perform the same linguistic function. For example, a learner might use No look my card and Don’t look my card to perform the function of telling someone to keep his eyes to himself (the example comes from Rod Ellis’s work). Although it has been documented in learner speech, free variation does not seem to play a major role in production and generally seems to disappear as learners’ L2 systems develop and organize. That is, free variation might be fleetingly transitional as the learner enters a new stage of development.
More studied and of more interest to linguists is systematic variation, the use of two or more formal features that on the surface look to perform the same function but actually do not. Schachter (1986), for example, examined the data on negation from one learner and discovered that he used I don’t know for the function of expressing a lack of information but used no + verb in the context of denials. Thus, in one recording session it might look like the learner was randomly using two structures for negation when in fact it seems they were distributed across different functions or intended meanings.

Benati, Alessandro G.; VanPatten, Bill. Key Terms in Second Language Acquisition.
London, GBR: Continuum International Publishing, 2010. p 38.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/tallinn/Doc?id=10427496&ppg=38
Copyright © 2010. Continuum International Publishing. All rights reserved.