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331 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are the kidneys fxn's?
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1. Remove waste, 2. Regulate blood composition, 3. Excrete foreign substances
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What is regulated in the blood by the kidneys?
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1. Amount of water, 2. Quantity and concentration of ions, 3. Acid-base balance
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What are some systems affected by kidney fxn?
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GI, neurologic, muscle, heart, pretty much all systems
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What shape is the kidney?
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bean shaped, in back of abdomen at level of the lower ribs, each weighs 1/4 lb., dimensions: 4 x 2.5 x1.5 inches
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What is the major renal vein?
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blood returns to heart through inferior vena cava
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What is the major renel artery?
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major branch from aorta; 20% of systemic blood flow goes to kidney
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What is the blood flow through the kidney?
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2.1 L per minute
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What is the kidney medulla?
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containts light colored pyramids
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What is the kidney pelvis?
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flat funnel shaped cavity that collects the urine into the ureters
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what is the kidney cortex?
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Outer 1/3 of kidney, contains most of the filtration units
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What does 'pilo' refer to?
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renal pelvis involvement
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Where is a nephron?
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cortex and medulla, perpendicular to surface of kidney
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How many nephrons per kidney?
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1M
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What doe each nephron do?
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produce urine, clean the blood
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What has vasculature similar to the eye?
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The kidney, so DM and SLE have similar effects on these structures
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What is a nephron?
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ball of capillaries, long thin tube with a hair pin loop, closed at one end
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Where are peritubular capillaries?
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around the nephron
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Who do peritubular capillaries absorb?
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water, solutes, which leave renal tubules
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What provides blood to renal tissue?
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peritubular capillaries
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What is the glomerulus?
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pinhead sized filtration capsule 1million per kindey
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What is Bowman's Capsule?
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hollow sphere around glomeruli that drain into the tubules
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What is the urine pole?
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where the urine drains from the glomeruli
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Where is the vascular pole?
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where blood enters the glomeruli
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What are juxtaglomerular cells?
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baroreceptors that sense pressure change that produce, store and excrete renin
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Where are enlarged smooth muscle cells of afferent arterioles found in the kidneys?
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juxtaglomerular cells
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Where are Bowman's capsules located?
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outer 1/3 of cortex
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What are glomelular capillaries
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ball of capillaries with fenestrated endothelium and incomplete basement membrane
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What are mesangial cells?
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Cells w/ phagocytic and contractile fxn to control blood flow
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What holds the glomelular 'ball' together
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mesangial cells
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What capillary has an incomplete basement membrane?
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glomelular capillaries
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What are podocytes?
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modified epithelial cells that support glomelular capillaries
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What are podocytes similar to?
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choriocapillaris and RPE cells
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What gets through fenestrated structures more readily?
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positively charged ions, substances found in high conc. Systemically, smaller size all facilitate movement across membrane
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Why should protein NOT be able to get into the glomerulus?
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proteins are large molecules, SHOULD be too large to get through
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Is the glomelular capillary system high pressure?
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yes, and it is leaky so exudates are forced through
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What are the two important factors that control glomelular filtration rates?
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time and pressure
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Is there parasympathetic innervation in the afferent tubule?
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no
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What does sympathetic stimulation of the kidney do?
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constricts arteriole and releases rein from juxtaglomelular cells
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What does constriction of renal blood flow do?
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slows blood flow and reduces filtration pressure
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What does angiotensin II do under sympathetic stimulus?
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constriction of efferent ateriole
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What triggers angiotensin II?
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renin
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What do PG's, nitric oxide, and endothelin do?
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chemical mediators that influence renal blood vessels
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Where is the afferent arteriole of the glomerulus?
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upstream from glomerulus
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Where is the efferent arteriole of the glomerulus?
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downstream of glomerulus 'Efferent is the Exit'
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Does the kidney try to maintain constant filtration?
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yes
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What is the mechanism of initial filtration?
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2-3x higher pressure than any other capillary bed is found in glomeruli; this forces substances through capillaries
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What is the glomerulus selective for?
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smaller substances, positive substances, configuration of the the substance
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What is in filtrate?
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water, ions, glucose, AA, bicarbonate
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What is reabsorption?
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substance filtered by glomeruli are brought back into the body
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What is reabsorbed?
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ions, glucose, amino acids from the lumen of nephron
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What facilitates reabsorption?
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specialized transporters on epithelial cells of nephrons
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Are transporters active or passive?
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both!
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How is Na+ related to reabsorption?
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Na+ is sometimes exchanged with substances, enters together via shared transporters or can undergo solvent drag with reabsorbed substances
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What are the two major modifers of absorption?
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concentration, rate of filtrate flow
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What does a higher flow of filtrate cause?
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Less time for transporters to glean their targeted substance
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Where does reabsorption of water occur?
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along tubules in a passive mechanism, except for the Ascending and Distal Tubules
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What % of total filtrate volume becomes urine?
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1%
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What is reabsorbed in the proximal tubule?
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80% of glomelular filtrate
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What is reabsorbed in the Loop of Henle?
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water and salt, 6% of filtrate reabsorbed here
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What is reabsorbed in the distal tubule?
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9% of filtrate. Variable reabsorption and active secretion occurs
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What is reabsorbed in the collecting tubule?
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4% of filtrate
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What is excretion sometimes called?
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Secretion
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What is the distal tubule sometimes called?
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Distal convoluated tubule
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What is excreted in the glomerulus?
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water, ions, glucose, AA, bicarbonate
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What % of Na is reabsorbed?
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66%
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What does Na reabsorption depend on?
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angiotensin II
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how much water and Cl- is reabsorbed?
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80%, passively
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How much K+ is reabsorbed?
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50%, actively
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Where is the filtrate isotonic?
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entrance to the loope of Henle
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What is the only thing reabsorbed in the descending loop of Henle?
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water
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What is the osmolarity of the filtrate as it leaves the Loop of Henle?
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hypotonic
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What reabsorbs water reclaimed in the loop of Henle?
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peritubular capillaries
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What does ''water flows down hill'' remind?
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That water flows out (reabsorbed) in the descending loop of Henle
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As it enters the Ascending loop of Henle, what is the osmolarity?
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hypertonic
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Is the ascending loop of Henle permeable to water?
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No. 'Water can't flow uphill'
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What is reabsorbed in the Ascending Loop of Henle?
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Na, K, Cl
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What does the reabsorption of salt do to the medulla?
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Makes it very hypertonic
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What is the osmolarity of exit filtrate from the Acending loop of Henle?
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hypotonic
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Where are macula densa cells?
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Specialized epithelial cells that connect the distal convoluated tubule
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What do macula densa cells do?
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Sense the levels sodium and chloride in filtrate.
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What do macula dense cells do if NaCl is low in the filtrate?
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encourage relase of renin from juxtaglomelular cells
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What does parathyroid hormone induce in the distal tubule?
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increased Ca++ absorption
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Are early cells of the distal tubule permeable to water?
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No
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Is filtrate hypotonic or hypertonic in the distal tubule?
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hypotonic
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What is Na exchanged for in the distal tubule?
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K+ is excreted actively, partly in exchange for Na+
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How is Na reabsorbed in the collecting duct?
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active transport
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What does aldosterone increase in the collecting duct?
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K+ excretion/Na+ reabsorption exchange
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What does ADH do to the collecting duct?
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allows water to pass through walls of collecting ducts
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What is the osmolarity of urine in the collecting duct?
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hypertonic
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What is passively reabsorbed in the collecting duct?
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urea
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What is the major stimulus for ADH secretion?
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decreased blood volume
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What measures blood volume?
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baroreceptors found in a multitude of places like Aorta, pulmonary vessels, carotid artery
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What mechanism do baroreceptors use to measure pressure?
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measure stretch of BV walls
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What does decreased blood volume cause?
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low BP and increased osmolarity
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Where are osmoreceptors found?
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anterior hypothalamus
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What are osmoreceptors most sensitive to?
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Na+ and mannitol, glucose to a lesser effect
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What does ADH cause in the kidney?
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increased water reabsorption
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What is the autocrine system?
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hormones that bind to receptors and affect the fxn of the cell type that produced it.
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What is a vasoactive peptide?
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endothelins
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What are the type of endothelins?
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E1, E2, E3
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What do endothelins cause?
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increased BP through vasoconstriction, can cause vasodilation in a minority of instances, Tends to cause salt and water retention
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What is nitric oxide?
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A molecular gas that has three forms that act on the kidney that is also a vasodilator and is how the macula densa cells talk to their juxtaglomerular buddies.
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What does nitric oxide cause in the kidney?
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more water to be excreted, helps macula densa cells to provide feedback
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What may normotensive glaucoma be related to?
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renal nitric oxides
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What do renal PG's do?
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increase blood flow to kidney; prevent vasoconstriction
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What can impair water reabsorption through blocking ADH in the collecting duct?
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renal PG's
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What can prescribing PG's as an optometric drug cause systemically?
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edema
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What prevents water and sodium reabsorption and prevents K excretion?
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renal PG's
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How is angiotensin II formed?
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renin combines w/ angiotensinogen --> angiotensin I --> AG II
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What is angiotensin II?
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A potent vasoconstrictor that increases ADH release
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What stimulates thirst?
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angiotensin II
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What is the general effect of increased angiotensin II?
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increased BP
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Where is ADH released from?
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neurohypophysis
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What increases aldosterone release from adrenal cortex?
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renin
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What is released in response to hypoxia by the kidney?
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EPO
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What does EPO do?
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stimulate bone marrow to produce RBC's
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What does calcitriol do?
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Stimulates absorption of calcium in intestine
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What is the pH target for blood?
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7.4
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Where do excess H+ go?
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neutralized by bicarbonates
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What regulates bicarbonate regeneration?
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kidney
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How does the kidney influence blood pH?
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excretes H+ or Bicarbonate
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What is a sign of kidney disease?
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anemia
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What is a common problem with kidney dx?
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osteoporosis
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What is the glomelular filtration rate?
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Amt of filtrate formed in all nephrons
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What % of renal plasma flow is filtered?
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20%
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what is the normal glomelular filtration rate?
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115-125 ml/minute
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What is glomelular filtration rate use to assess?
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renal fxn
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How is a glomelular filtration rate measured?
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collected blood is timed to see how fast substances are removed from the body
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What test requires the pt to be in a clinic for hours to perform the test?
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glomelular filtration rate
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What is creatinine?
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byproduct of muscle metabolism
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What does the kidney do to creatinine?
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filters it out, but does not reabsorb it out of the tubules
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What is the normal value for a creatinine clearance test?
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100 ml/minute
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What is an abnormal value for creatinine clearance?
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<60 = significant indicator of kidney dx
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How is the creatinine clearance test performed?
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urine is collected for 24 hrs w/ a blood draw at the end
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What is the normal serum level of creatinine?
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1.0 mg/100mL
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What can influence normal creatinine serum levels?
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gender and size of individual
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If creatinine serum level is doubled, what does this mean?
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kidney fxn has fallen to half of normal rate
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If creatinine serum level is triple, what does this mean?
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kidney fxn has fallen to 25% of normal rate
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What is the BUN?
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tests urea as an indicator of kidney fxn
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What is urea?
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end product of protein metabolism
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What is the rate of urea excretion?
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roughly 50% excreted, 50% reabsorbede
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What is a normal value for urea in the BUN test?
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7-20 mg/dL
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What increases in the BUN test with decreasing kidney fxn?
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urea levels
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What is azotenia?
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an asymptomatic malfunction that is indicative of poor urea release in kidney
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What is abnormally seen in urinalysis?
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protein, blood or glucose
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What is the first sign of kidney involvement in DM?
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albumin in the urine
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What is the NGAL?
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neutrophil gelatinase associated lipocalin
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What does NGAL test for?
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acute damage to the kidney, indicator of necessity for dialysis to allow kidney to heal/recover
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What does increased potassium and phosphate levels indicate?
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kidney failure
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What does decreased calcium, pH and bicarbonate levels indicate?
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kidney failure
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What is cystoscopy?
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flourescine imaging of the urethra, bladder, and ureteral orifices; allows for biopsy
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What can ultrasound evaluate in the kidney?
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structure, tumors, abnormalities
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What % of US adults have chronic kidney dx?
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15%
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What is CKD?
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chronic kidney dx
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How many die per year due to renal problems?
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84k
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How many americans require dialysis or kidney transplantation to live?
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335k
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How many people are waiting for a kidney?
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74k
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How many people receive kidney transplants each year?
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17k
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Is CKD increasing or decreasing in the US?
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increasing
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Know slides 3 and 4!!!! Redo and expand, also check slide 36 of prev ppt
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What does CKD increase the risk for?
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ARMD 3-5x greater, dry eye 15x greater
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What can optometric prescribed medications cause?
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renal side effects
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What may be adjusted if CKD is suspected in a pt?
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decreased dosage of meds may be required to protect kidneys
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What is the most common cause of kidney failure?
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DM (40%)
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What is a second most common cause of kidney failure?
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hypertension
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How much kindey fxn can be lost before sx develop?
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80-90%
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When is pain felt during kidney failure/dx?
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Only if stretching of renal fascia or muscular contraction of ureters
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What % of pt's have a GFR of 50-60 mL/min that are diagnosed by primary care physician?
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18%
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What is the threshold for kindey dx to be considered chronic?
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3 mo
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What are the three general locations for kidney failure to act?
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pre-renal - burns, blood loss, other systemic problem leads to kidney dysfunction; intrinsic - the kidney itself is the cause, perhaps with the medulla or tubules, etc. Even with normal bloodflow, still going to fail. Post-renal - kidney stones, fluid backup due to blockage downstream
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What are common first s/sx of kidney dx?
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HTN, pulmonary edema, HA, swelling of legs, nausea and vomiting, Weight loss, itching, cognitive impairment, tendency to bleed,
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What kidney dx s/sx are related to fluid balance problems?
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HTN, swelling of legs, pulmonary edema
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What kidney dx s/sx are due to increased levels of urea, ions, and other waste products?
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Fatigue, HA, weight loss, nausea and vomiting, cognitive fxn loss
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What causes itching in kidney dx?
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phosphorus levels increase
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What GRF rate is diagnostic for a normal person to go on dialysis?
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<10mL/min GFR
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What products are increased in the system with decreased kidney fxn?
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hormones and nitrogenous wastes
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What products are decreased in the system with kidney fxn loss?
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EPO
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What is azotemia?
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If a patient has high levels of BUN but don't have symptoms of uremia.
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Which organs are affected by CKD?
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every system in the body
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What does CKD do to the skin?
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increased pigmentation due to hormonal changes, and pruritis
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What does renal osteodystrophy cause systemically?
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hyperparathyroidism --> calcitrol, osteosclerosis, osteomalacia, muscle weakness
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What is nocturia?
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urinating at night
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What is polyuria?
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incrased urination
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What is uremic frost?
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Ca Sulfate and phosphate precipitate in the sweat, ODIFEROUS, smells like a porta potty, yellow discoloration of skin
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What is ESRD?
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End stage renal dx
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Who is most prone to kidney dx?
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8x greater in blacks
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What is the threshold for ESRD?
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kidney fxn < 20%
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What is the main cause of death with impaired kidney fxn?
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cardiovascular death, stroke
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How many people are affected by ESRD per yr in the US?
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35k
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What is ARF?
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Acute renal failure
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what are some causes of ARF?
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hemorrhaging, shock, infections, autoimmune dx, meds
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What are s/sx of ARF?
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loss of regulatory, excretatory, and endocrine fxn of kidney
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What % of pt's will fully recover from ARF if properly treated?
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90%
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What can pregnancy sometimes cause in the kidney?
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Acute renal failure
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What is the most common cause of ARF?
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acute tubular necrosis
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What is the onset of declined GFR in ATN?
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minutes to days
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What causes ATN?
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acute ischemic or nephrotoxic insult
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What tissue is destroyed in ATN?
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tubular epithelial cells --> decreased ion transport
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Where do the destroyed epithelial cells go in ATN?
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clog the tubules causing damaged vasculature from increased pressure
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What is the result of damaged vasculature in the kidney?
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vasoconstriction, reduced urine volume, increased waste products in the blood
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What happens to endothelin, nitric oxide and PG levels in ATN?
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increased endothelin, decreased PG and nitric oxide --> vasoconstriction
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What feedback loop causes reduced urine in ATN?
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renin production increases --> less urine
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What is malignant hypertension?
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uncommon form of HTN, medical emergency
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What is the tx of malignant hypertension?
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immediate and aggressive anti-HTN therapy
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What are the s/sx of malignant hypertension?
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BP > 120 mmHg, ONH edema, scotoma, encephalopathy, renal failure, CV (cardiovascular) abnormalities
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What is the pathophysiology of malignant hypertension?
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vascular damage to kidney --> increased permeability of small vessels --> fibrosis of vessels --> narrowing of vessel lumun --> ischemia of kidney --> renin release --> even further vasoconstriction
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What are specific mechanism for meds to cause ARF?
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Type 1 and Type IV hypersensitivity (hapten), med causes toxicity
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What can cause ARF through medication toxicity?
|
aminoglycosides cause 10% of pt's to have nephrotoxicity
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What is the timing of ARF onset after aminoglycoside regimens are started?
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1 week
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What is the prognosis for ARF due to aminoglycoside nephrotoxicity?
|
very good change for recovery
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What cause of ARF is NOT dose related?
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Type 1 and Type IV hypersensitivity
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What cause of ARF IS dose related?
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aminoglycosides
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What can NSAID's cause in the kidney?
|
decreased PG --> vasoconstriction --> ARF
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What can radiographic contrast agents cause in the kidney?
|
ARF in up to 76% of pt's who take it
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What are risks for taking radiographic contrast agents?
|
pt's with pre-existing renal insufficiency
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What is a common precaution taken when using radiographic contrast agents?
|
IV to prevent dehydration
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Can radiographic contrast agents cause hypersensitivity rxns?
|
yes
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What dz's are related to glomelular dysfunction?
|
nephrotic syndrome, nephritic syndrome, membranoprolifereative glomerulonephritis
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What are s/sx of nephrotic syndrome?
|
massive proteinuria, edema (eyelids first), hypoalbuminemia, hyperlipiduria and hyperlipidemia
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What is nepthrotic syndrome?
|
derangement of glomelular capillary walls
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What causes the body to produce increased plasma proteins and lipoproteins?
|
hypoalbuminuria due to nephrotic syndrome
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What is pitting edema?
|
If skin is depressed manually, it will remain depressed after removing the source of pressure.
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What dx presents deranged capillaries?
|
nephrotic syndrome
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Where does the edema start in nephrotic syndrome?
|
eyelids
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What causes bubbly urine?
|
nephrotic syndrome due to massive proteinuria
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What does hypoalbuminemia cause?
|
lipoprotiein and plasma protein synthesis
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What causes in increased risk of thromboembolism?
|
hyperlipidemia and hyperlipiduria
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What causes nephrotic syndrome?
|
immune mediation, diabetes, NSAID, SLE, membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis, idiopathi c
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What tx of nephrotic syndrome is 90% effective?
|
corticosteriods
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What is the rate of recurrence for nephrotic syndrome?
|
66%
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What is used for the first six months of nephrotic syndrome tx?
|
thrombo-prophylaxis (warfarin, etc)
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What are ACE inhibitors?
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decrease glomelular filtration rate, improve charge and size selections. Tx for nephrotic syndrome
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What is steroid dependence?
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Where reduction of corticosteroids causes the dx to relapse, pt becomes dependent on meds
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What dx often displays steroid dependence/recurrence during tx?
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nephrotic syndrome
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What is acute glomerulonephritis also called?
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acute nephritic syndrome
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What presents abrupt hematuria with lesser amt's of proteinuria and impaired renal function?
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acute nephritic syndrome
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Why can blood leak through the glomerulus in acute nephritic syndrome?
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the blood often cremates into smaller pieces
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What is oliguria?
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Decrease in urine production
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What causes HTN in acute nephritic syndrome?
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retention of salt
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In acute nephritic syndrome, where is edema first seen?
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eyelids
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What presents worse edema: acute nephritic syndrome or nephrotic syndrome?
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Nephrotic syndrome
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What is a common precursor to acute nephritic syndrome?
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streptococcal infection in previous 10-14 days; Ag-Ab rxn
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When is acute nephritic syndrome typically seen?
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in children, more common in summer and autumn, more common in south
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What is a precursor for 5% of acute nephritic syndrome cases?
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strep throat
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What dx develops nephritic syndrome up to 50% of the time?
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post streptococcal pyoderma
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If there is no prior strep infection seen with acute nephritic syndrome, what should be considered?
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SLE
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Can acute nephritic syndrome be idiopathic?
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yes
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Howis acute nephritic syndrome treated?
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salt restriction, diuretics/anti-hypertensives
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What % of acuate nephritic syndrome completely recovers?
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90-95%
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How long can acute nephritic syndrome take to clear up?
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1-2 years
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Does acute nephritic syndrome often progress to chronic renal failure?
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rarely
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What is dense deposit dx also called?
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membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis
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What causes Type I, II, and III hypersensitivity attack of glomerular and mesangium tissues?
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dense deposit dx
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What type of dense deposit dx presents with bilateral central drusen?
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type II
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When is drusen seen in teenagers?
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dense deposit dx
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What is TIN?
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tubulointerstitial nephropathy
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What is spared in TIN?
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glomeruli and renal vessels
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what is pyelonephritis?
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bacterial infection of the renal pelvis
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What is pyelonephritis often seen?
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TIN
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Is TIN acute or chronice?
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both
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What is TIN called if no bacteria are involved?
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interstitial nephritis, caused by drugs and metabolic disorders, physical injury
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What is a common first sign of TIN?
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bilateral uveitis
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What age does TIN present typically?
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10-33 years
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What gender is affected more by TIN?
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female 3x > males
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What % of TIN presents with uveitis (TINU)?
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77%
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What dx presents fever, weight loss and fatigue in 50% of cases?
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TINU
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What % of TINU is recurrent?
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50%
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What % of TINU presents with ocular symptoms first?
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35%
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When is iridocyclitis seen?
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TINU
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What is the TX for TINU?
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oral corticosteroids
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What is APN?
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acute pyelonephritis
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What does APN present?
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inflamed kidney and renal pelvis
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What causes APN?
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bacteria in through urethra --> bladder --> ureters --> kidney
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Who is prone to APN?
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Women due to shape and length of urethra, PREGNANCY
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What is usually very responsive to antibiotics?
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APN
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What are APN's s/sx?
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fever, dysuria, flank/back pain, pyuria
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What is chronic pyelonephritis?
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slowly progressing/insidious dx of kidney
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What are the s/sx of chronic pyelonephritis?
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fatigue, don't feel well; generally vague sx
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When is pus seen in urine?
|
chronic pyelonephritis
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What can lead to renal dialysis?
|
chronic pyelonephritis
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What presents frequent UTI, vesicoureteric reflux or diabetic nephropathy?
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chronic pyelonephritis
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What is the single most important cause of ESRD?
|
diabetic nephropathy
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What do ACE inhibitors and angiotensin II treatments protect against?
|
diabetic nephropathy
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Where is microalbinurai and proteinuria seen?
|
diabetic nephropathy
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Does diabetic nephropathy usually progress?
|
Yes, end stage renal dx 1-5 years after onset generally
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What presents nephrotic syndrome and azotemia?
|
diabetic nephropathy 3-5 years after proteinura
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What is the classification of diabetic nephropathy?
|
glomerular dx
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What can cause capillary basement membrane thickening?
|
diabetic nephropathy
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What is Fabry dx?
|
glycosphingolipid metabolism
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What enzyme defect causes Fabry dx?
|
alpha galactidase A
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Is Fabry's genetic?
|
yes, x-linked recessive
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What genetic dx presents symptoms in carriers?
|
Fabry dx
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What is the occurrence of Fabry dx?
|
1/100k
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Is Fabry dx hard to diagnose?
|
Yes, due to s/sx variability
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What presents in children with a burning sensation in the hands?
|
Fabry dx
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What presents with raised rash on buttocks, groin, thighs?
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Fabry dx
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What is corneal whorl?
|
Also called verticillata
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|
where is decreased sweating seen?
|
Fabry dx
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What is the most common ocular sign seen in 90% of Fabry dx?
|
corneal whorl or verticillata
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What is the best way to see corneal whorl?
|
transillumination in biomicroscopy
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What dx causes build up of lipids in tissues?
|
Fabry dx
|
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What causes increased conj vessel tortuosity?
|
Fabry dx
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What kind of cataract is caused by Fabrys?
|
spoke like(stellate), anterior subcapsular, follows suture lines, white in appearance
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What are the systemic kidney complications from Fabry?
|
renal failure --> proteinuria, azotemia, uremia
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|
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What age does 50% of fabry pts present renal failure?
|
50%
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|
Renal failure, GI dysfunction, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular problems are seen systemically in what dx?
|
Fabry dx
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How is Fabry tested for?
|
enzyme assay, genetic testing
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How is Fabry treated?
|
enzyme replacement, agalsidase beta via IV
|
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What is nephrolithiasis?
|
Formation of a stone in the collecting system of the kidney
|
|
|
Where are kidney stones usually seen?
|
ureters
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|
|
What is a calculus?
|
Another term for kidney stone
|
|
|
What % of autopsies show a kidney stone?
|
1%
|
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|
What are polygenic kidney stones?
|
Stones due to dehydration, medication, gout
|
|
|
What is the composition of a kidney calculus?
|
calcium 75%; Mg 15%; uric acid or cystine 10%
|
|
|
What common ocular drug can cause kidney stones?
|
acetazolamide
|
|
|
What % of people will have a kidney stone at some point in their life?
|
5%
|
|
|
What is the peak incidence of kidney stones?
|
20-45 years
|
|
|
What are men more prone to than women?
|
kidney stones and Fabry's disease
|
|
|
What can cause hematuria?
|
kidney stones
|
|
|
What does kidney stone impingement of ureter cause?
|
severe, suddent pain onset
|
|
|
What is the best way to diagnose a kidney stone?
|
cat scan
|
|
|
What % of stones pass sponataneously?
|
90%
|
|
|
What is the most important tx for kidney stones
|
pain relief
|
|
|
What do alpha adrenergic blocks and calcium channel blockers cause for kidney stone pt's?
|
ureter relaxation
|
|
|
What are common ways to prevent kidney stones?
|
don't drink too much milk, diet, hydration
|
|
|
What is shockwave lithotripsy?
|
Uses radio waves to break up a kidney stone into small, passable pieces
|
|
|
What is renal cell carcinoma?
|
80-90% of all malignant kidney tumors
|
|
|
What can cause renal atherosclerosis?
|
diabetic nephropathy
|
|
|
What dx affects both afferent and efferent arterioles of the kidney?
|
diabetic nephropathy
|
|
|
What is pyelonephritis?
|
increased susceptibility to renal infection leads to infection of the renal pelvis
|
|
|
What can cause pyelonephritis?
|
E.coli
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