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144 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
What are the monosachharides?
Fructose
Glucose
Galactose
Mannose
What are the disaccharides and what are their structures?
Sucrose = Fructrose + Glucose
Lactose = Glucose + Galactose
Maltose = Glucose + Glucose
What type of linkage does starch have? What enzymes break it down?
alpha 1-4

Salivary alpha-amylase
Pancreatic alpha-amylase
What type of linkage does lactose have?
Beta 1-4
Describe how ingested starch gets broken down into glucose.
Alpha amylase breaks the starch down to isomaltose, maltose and maltotriose. The enzyme maltase works on maltose and maltotriose to produce glucose. The enzyme isomaltase breaks down the alpha 1-6 bonds in isomaltose to form glucose.
Why can't we digest cellulose?
It has a beta 1-4 linkage that we can't break down with alpha amylase
What's the difference between amylose and amylopectin?
Amylose is linear, amylopectin is branched.

(Amylose is a simpler word, simpler structure)
What is the structure of inulin?
Chain of mostly fructose units with beta 2-1 linkages.
What cells produce gastrin and where are they located?
G cells in the antrum of the stomach.

GAstrin
G=G cells
A=Antrum
What do parietal cells produce and where are they located?
HCl and Intrinsic Factor

Located in the Fundus and Body of the stomach
What cells produce pepsinogen and where are they located? How is pepsinogen activated into pepsin?
Chief cells in the Fundus and Body of the stomach.

Pepsinogen --> pepsin with HCl or pepsin present.

This is the only (the CHIEF) digestive enzyme that comes from the stomach.
What are the 4 main protein-degradation enzymes that are released from the pancreas?
Trypsinogen and Chymotrypsinogen

Carboxypeptidase A and Carboxypeptidase B
Where are all the polysaccharides broken down and absorbed?
All polysaccharides broken down by the BRUSH BORDER ENZYMES to monosaccharides in the duodenum and jejunum
What are the main transport proteins for:
Calcium
Vitamin A
Iron
Copper
Albumin - transports a variety of nutrients such as calcium, zinc and B6

Retinol Binding Protein for vitamin A

Transferrin for iron

Ceruloplasmin for copper
Which GLUT transporter is regulated by insulin and on what tissues is it found?
GLUT 4

On heart, adipose and skeletal muscle tissue
Where does glycolysis take place?
In the cytosol in nearly all cells of the body
What vitamin/mineral cofactors are required for glycolysis?
Mg/ATP needed for hexokinase/glucokinase step and PFK-1.

Mg/ADP and K needed for pyruvate kinase

Mg/ADP needed for 3-phosphoglycerate kinase

Niacin/NAD needed for glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (Note that most dehydrogenase reactions need either NAD, NADP or FAD)
What are the 3 rate-limiting enzymes in glycolysis?
Hexokinase/Glucokinase
PFK-1
Pyruvate Kinase
How is PFK-1 regulated?
Stimulated by fructose 2,6 bisphosphate and high levels of AMP.

(Fructose 2,6 bisphosphate is a product of PFK-2 which is upregulated by insulin and downregulated by glucagon)

Inhibited by high levels of citrate and ATP.
What are the end products of glycolysis in 1) anaerobic conditions and 2) aerobic conditions?
Anaerobic: 2 ATP and 2 Lactate

Aerobic: 2 ATP, 2 Pyruvate and 2 NADH
How many ATP's can be generated from the Kreb's cycle and where in the cycle?
12 ATP per turn of the cycle

3 NADH produce 3 ATP each
1 FADH produces 2 ATP
1 GTP

Isocitrate to alpha-ketoglutarate via isocitrate dehydrogenase (NADH)

Alpha-ketoglutarate to succinyl CoA via alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (NADH)

Succinyl CoA to Succinate (GTP)

Succinate to fumarate via succinate dehydrogenase (FAD --> FADH)

Malate to oxaloacetate via malate dehydrogenase (NADH)
What does pyruvate dehydrogenase do and what are the required cofactors?
It is a 3 complex enzyme system that takes pyruvate and creates Acetyl-CoA plus CO2. The cofactors are:
CoA-SH (Requires pantothenic acid)
NAD+ (needs niacin)
TPP (need thiamine)
Lipoic acid
FAD (needs riboflavin)
What pancreatic enzyme activates its own proenzyme and others?
Trypsin
How many complexes are in the electron transport chain? Which one does NADH enter? Which one does FADH enter? Which is ATP Synthase? What complex is skipped if the entering molecule is NADH?
5
NADH enters at I, skips II, then III, IV; FADH enters at II.
ATP Synthase is V.
Where does oxidative phosphorylation take place? What direction do the H+ ions get pumped?
Across the inner mitochondrial membrane. The direction of H+ ions in complex I, III and IV are from the inner matrix to the intermembrane space. Complex V takes an H+ ion from the intermembrane space and pumps it through to the matrix, forming an ATP molecule.
How does 2,4 Dinitrophenol or an overdose of aspirin affect electron transport?
It makes membrane more permeable, uncoupling the reaction, making less of a proton gradient but increased O2 consumption. The result is heat.
What are the names of complexes I - IV and what are they made up of in the electron transport chain?
I - NADH Dehydrogenase: FMN, and iron sulfate
II - Succinate dehydrogenase: CoQ and iron sulfate
III: Cytochrome Reductase: Cyt b, Iron sulfate and Cyt C1
IV - Cytochrome Oxidase: Cyt aa3
What transfers the electron from either complex I or II to complex III?
What transfers the electron between complex III and IV in the electron transfer chain?
CoQ10
Cyt c
What does Cyanide and CO do to oxidative phosphorylation?
Inhibits cytochrome oxidase (Complex IV)
Where does gluconeogenesis occur?
In the cytosol of the cells, primarily in the liver with a small % in the kidney.
What are the 2 amino acids that are not glucogenic (they're solely ketogenic)?
Leucine, lysine
For gluconeogenesis, pyruvate is the starting point. How do we get from pyruvate to PEP?
Pyruvate to oxaloacetate (OAA) by pyruvate carboxylase;
OAA to malate;
Malate crosses the mitochondria membrane;
Malate gets converted to OAA in cytosol;
OAA gets converted to PEP by PEPcarboxykinase (requires ATP)
What are the irreversible enzymes in gluconeogenesis and what are their cofactors?
Pyruvate carboxylase (converts pyruvate to oxaloacetate): Biotin, ATP, CO2

PEP carboxykinase (converts oxaloacetate to PEP): GTP

Fructose 1,6 bisphosphatase (converts fructose 1,6 bisphosphate to fructose-6-P)

Glucose-6-phosphatase (converts glucose-6-P to glucose)

"Pathway Produces Fresh Glucose"
To make 1 molecule of glucose from 2 molecules of pyruvate, how many ATP are required in gluconeogenesis?
2 for pyruvate carboxylase
2 for PEP carboxykinase
2 to go from 3 Phosphoglycerate to 1,3-Bisphophoglycerate using the enzyme phosphoglycerate kinase (this is where 2 ATP are made in the glycolysis cycle)

6 total
What is the rate-limiting enzyme in glycogenesis?
Glycogen synthase
What is the rate-limiting enzyme in glycogenolysis?
Glycogen phosphorylase
What are the end products of the hexose monophosphate shunt for the oxidative path and non-oxidative path?

Where do these pathways take place? How many ATP are required?
Oxidative path: ribulose-5-P, CO2 and (2) NADPH

Non-oxidative path: ribose-5-P

Takes place in the cytoplasm of cells in lactating mammary glands, liver, adrenal cortex and RBC's.

No ATP are required (trick question!)
What is the rate-limiting enzyme for oxidative path of hexose monophosphate shunt?
G6PD
What is the Cori cycle?
Lactate in muscle cells is shipped back to liver to be turned into glucose and sent back to muscle cells. There is a net loss of 4 ATP (+2 in glycolysis; -6 in gluconeogenesis)
What are the regulation factors for gluconeogenesis?
Up-regulated by cortisol, glucagon, citrate and acetyl CoA

Down-regulated by insulin, high levels of AMP
Glucose is what type of monosaccharide?
What is fructose?
Glucose is a pyranose (5 C ring with O - 6C's total, though)

Fructose is a furanose (4 C ring with O - 6C's total, though)

So both are hexose sugars with 6 C's
What are the differences between Glucokinase and Hexokinase?
Glucokinase - converts glucose to glucose-6-P in liver. It is has a low affinity (high Km) for glucose and is NOT regulated by insulin.

(GLucokinase: Glucose/Liver)

Hexokinase - operates in the other tissues and IS regulated by insulin.
What are the 2 main disorders of fructose metabolism and what are the inheritance types?
Essential Fructosuria: Lacking fructokinase so unable to bring fructose into cells. Usually asymptomatic, fructose in urine and blood.

Fructose Intolerance: Lacking Aldolase B, so cannot convert fructose-1-P into glyceraldehyde. Buildup of toxic substances, sequestering of phosphate --> lower ATP, inhibition of glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. Can lead to hypoglycemia, jaundice, cirrhosis and vomiting.

Both are autosomal recessive
What does G6PD deficiency do and what is the inheritance pattern?
X-linked recessive. Most common enzyme deficiency disorder. Without G6PD, hexose monophosphate pathway is blocked which means no NADPH is made, which means glutathione can't be regenerated. Causes Heinz bodies (oxidized Hemoglobin in RBC's) and bite cells (where macrophages tried to remove Heinz bodies)
What are the 2 main disorders of galactose metabolism and what are the inheritance types?
Galactokinase Deficiency: Relatively mild condition; accumulation of galactose

Classic Galactosemia: Deficiency of galactose-1-P-uridyltransferase which causes buildup of galactose-1-P. Toxic; can build up in lens of eye. Sx: failure to thrive, jaundice, hepatomegaly, infantile cataracts, mental retardation.

They are both autosomal recessive
What is NADPH used for?
Respiratory burst
Reduce glutathione
Fatty acid synthesis
Cytochrome P450
What is the enzyme that converts glucose to sorbitol? What is the enzyme that converts sorbitol to fructose? What tissues are missing this 2nd enzyme?
Aldose reductase converts glucose to sorbitol.

Sorbitol dehydrogenase converts sorbitol to fructose.

Schwann cells, kidney, lens and retina are missing sorbitol dehydrogenase (that's why these are the tissues that get damaged the most in diabetics).
What is the most basic (as in acidic/basic) amino acid? What else is basic?
Arginine

Also, lysine and histidine (though histidine has neutral charge in body pH)
What part of the urea cycle takes place in the mitochondria?
Carbamoyl phosphate is added to Ornithine by Ornithine transcarbamoylase in the mitochondria.
What is the rate-limiting step of the urea cycle?
Carbamoyl phosphate synthetase I; this does: CO2 + NH4+ + (2)ATP --> Carbamoyl phosphate; it occurs in the liver mitochondria
What are the intermediate products and required cofactors of the urea cycle?
Ornithine, Carbamoyl phosphate (joins ornithine to form citrulline) Citrulline, Aspartate (comes into cycle carrying NH4), Argininosuccinate, Fumarate + Arginine, Urea + Ornithine
What resulting product is formed when the NH3 is stripped from alanine?
Pyruvate
What amino acid usually transports ammonium from muscle to liver?
Alanine
What are the intoxification symptoms of hyperammonemia?
Tremor, slurred speech, somnolence, vomiting, cerebral edema, blurring of vision.
What are the essential amino acids?
P - Phenylalanine
V - Valine
T - Tryptophan

T - Threonine
I - Isoleucine
M - Methionine

H - Histidine (conditionally)
A - Arginine (conditionally)
L - Lycine
L - Leucine
What 3 amino acids make up glutathione?
Glutamate, Glycine, Cysteine
What amino acid becomes required in PKU?
Tyrosine
In PKU, what enzyme is deficient? What does the accumulated phenylalanine get converted into? What is the inheritance pattern?
Phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH)

In PKU there's an accumulation of phenylalanine that gets converted to phenylpyruvate.

It's autosomal recessive
What apolipoprotein binds to LDL receptors?
B-100
What apolipoprotein is found in some people on LDL and is associated with atherosclerosis?
Lp(a)
What apolipoprotein is synthesized in the intestinal cells and is attached to chylomicrons?
B-48
Which autosomal dominant disease has increased LDL due to absent or decreased LDL receptors?
Type IIa Familial Hypercholesterolemia
Which apolipoprotein is associated with Alzheimer's?
apoE-4
Which apolipoprotein is associated with Type III familial disbetalipoproteinemia?
ApoE-2 is aberrant and causes Type III familial disbetalipoproteinemia
Which apolipoprotein is an activator of extrahepatic lipoprotein lipase?
apoC-2
What is the etiology of Type I hyperlipoproteinemia (also known as hyperchylomicronemia)
Either a deficiency in lipoprotein lipase, or an altered apoC-2 (remember that C-2 is an activator of LPL)
What's discoidal or nascent HDL?
Mfg'd in liver or some in intestine, this is a small, disk-shaped, protein-rich particle that contains mostly apolipoproteins as well as LCAT (lecithin-cholesterol acyl transferase)
What are the 2 types of shuttle mechanisms that transfer cholesterol from macrophages and cells to HDL?
ABC (involves endocytosis)
SR-BI (does not involve endocytosis)
What does ACAT do?
It's in the cell and is upregulated when free cholesterol is present. It esterifies the cholesterol so that it can be stored.
Step through a cycle of beta-oxidation of Palmitoyl CoA and show how many ATP are generated with each step.
Step 1: Acyl CoA Dehydrogenase; FAD --> FADH = 2 ATP
Step 2: Enoyl CoA Hydratase; 0 ATP
Step 3: beta-hydroxyacel CoA Dehydrogenase; NAD --> NADH = 3 ATP
Step 4: Thiolase; breaks off an acetyl-CoA = 12 ATP

Remember: Oxidation w/ FAD, Hydration, Oxidation w/ NAD, Thiolysis; 17 ATP per cycle
How is beta-oxidation of fatty acids regulated?
Through the carnitine shuttle. CAT 1 (Carnitine AcylTransferase) is inhibited by malonyl-CoA which is the first intermediate in fatty acid synthesis.
How are fatty acids shuttled across the mitochondrial membrane?
Carnitine shuttle:

1) CAT 1:
(a) Located in outer membrane
(b) Moves fatty acid across outer membrane
(c) Attaches it to carnitine
(d) 1 ATP consumed

(2) Translocase
(a) Shuttles carnitine/fatty acid across intermembrane space

(3) CAT II
(a) Located on inner part of inner membrane
(b) Removes fatty acid from carnitine
(c) Adds CoA to fatty acid to form fatty acyl CoA
(d) 1 ATP consumed
What 2 amino acids make up carnitine?
Lysine and methionine
What two precursors are needed to begin the fatty acid synthesis pathway?
Acetyl CoA and Malonyl CoA
How does acetyl CoA get shuttled from the mitochondria to the cytosol?
It's converted to citrate, passes through the mitochondrial membrane, then is converted to oxaloacetate + acetyl CoA with the enzyme Citrate Lyase.
What are the 2 key components to the fatty acid synthesis enzyme complex?
Acyl Carrier Protein (ACP) and Condensing Enzyme (CE)
What are eicosanoids? What is their precursor? What releases this precursor to the cytoplasm?
A family of signaling molecules that act as short-range messengers affecting tissues near the cells.

They're manufactured from either arachidonic acid or EPA.

Phospholipase A2 attacks the middle carbon of glycerol in membrane triglycerols, releasing fatty acid.
Which pathway forms the series 2 prostaglandins and thromboxanes? Which one forms the series 4 leukotrienes? Which pathway forms series 3 prostaglandlins and which forms series 5 leukotrienes?
Arachidonic Acid as Precursor:
PG2 and TX2 from COX (cyclic) pathway
LT4 from LOX (linear)pathway

EPA as precursor:
PG3 from COX pathway
LT 5 from LOX pathway
Describe the formation of active vitamin D from UV light on the skin to the kidney.
Photosynthesis process from 290-315 nm (UVB) radiation

7-dehydrocholesterol (which is formed from cholesterol and is also known as Provitamin D3) gets transformed into Previtamin D3 (precalciferol)

After a few hours Previtamin D3 transforms to Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol)

Vitamin D3 attaches to D-binding protein α1-globulin in the plasma and is transported to the liver

25-hydroxycholecalciferol is made in liver by hepatic 25-hydroxylase

25-hydroxycholecalciferol goes to kidney and is converted to 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol (calcitriol)
What are the 3 ketone bodies and what is their precursor? When would these be formed? Which one is the only one the liver can utilize?
Acetone, acetoacetate, and beta-hydroxybutyrate

These are formed from acetyl CoA when there is an overflow of acetyl CoA which can occur with low carbohydrate intake or impaired carb use.

Acetone is the only one the liver can utilize.
Which complex of the ETC contains Cu? Which contain Iron?
Cytochrome c (shared between III and IV) has copper

I, II and III contain iron
Where in the cell does ketone body formation occur?
In the matrix of the mitochondria
Which enzyme is used in cholesterol synthesis?
1) HMG CoA synthase
2) HMG CoA reductase
3) Both
Both, but HMG CoA reductase is the rate-limiting step and produces the intermediate product Mevalonate
Where in the cell does cholesterol synthesis take place?
In the cytosol
What is the difference between HMG CoA synthase in the cytosol and HMG CoA synthase in the mitochondria?
In the cytosol it participates in manufacturing cholesterol. In the mitochondria, it participates in the formation of ketone bodies from acetyl CoA.
What amino acid is often found in beta turns of proteins but not found in alpha helix due to its unusual side chain?
Proline
What enzyme converts oxaloacetate to PEP in gluconeogenesis?
PEP carboxykinase

It requires GTP and gives off CO2 and GDP
What enzyme system is used in both the TCA cycle and the electron transport chain? What does it use as its cofactor?
Succinate dehydrogenase

It uses FAD when converting succinate to fumarate

it uses FADH in the electron transport chain
Which clotting factors is vitamin K necessary for synthesis? What drug is a vitamin K antagonist?
Factors II, VII, IX and X

Warfarin
What causes maple syrup disease?
A deficiency in α-keto acid dehydrogenase complex
What is the rate-limiting step in heme synthesis and what does it do?
Delta-aminolevulinic acid synthase (ALA synthase) makes delta-aminolevulinic acid from glycine and succinyl-CoA
Is glycogen synthase more active in its phosphorylated or unphosphorylated state? What upregulates the activity of glycogen synthase?
Unphosphorylated.

Insulin upregulates it
Which GLUT transporter is used in the liver? What other tissues use this? Is it regulated by insulin?
GLUT 2 used by liver, kidney, beta cells of pancreas, small intestine

Not regulated by insulin
What vitamin is needed in the non-oxidative pathway of HMP shunt and which enzyme uses it?
Thiamine

Used in Transketolase, which is used twice in the non-oxidative pathway of HMP shunt
Which pathway is reversible in HMP shunt?
Non-oxidative
What are the products produced in the oxidative pathway of HMP shunt?
2 NADP
H+ (from water molecule)
CO2
Ribulose-5-P is final product
What does glucose-6-P need to be converted to in order to be added to a glycogen chain?
Glucose-6-P to glucose-1-P to UDP-glucose
What is needed to form glycogen from scratch (before glycogen synthase can take over)?
A primer called glycogenin
Humans lack enzymes to make double bonds in fatty acids past a certain point. What is that point?
Delta 9
What is the structure of the following fatty acids (delta system and omega naming system)?
Palmitate
Stearate
Linoelic
Alpha linolenic
Oleic acid
Palmitate: 16:0
Stearate: 18:0
Linoleic: 18:2 delta 9,12 (omega 6)
Alpha linolenic: 18:3 delta 9,12,15 (omega 3)
Oleic acid: 18:1 delta 9 (omega 9)
Which end does the omega naming system start from on the fatty acid?
Methyl end
In glycogenolysis, what enzyme removes the glucose at a branch and how does it do it?
Glycogen phosphorylase stops removing glucose molecules when it is 4 glucose from the end . Then a debranching enzyme removes 3 units and transfers them to the non-reducing end (transferase), then the last glucose unit at a branch point is split off by alpha 1,6 glucosidase activity.
What amino acids are required for purine synthesis?
Glycine, Aspartate, Glutamine
What 2 cycles does carbomoyl phosphate participated in?
Urea cycle
De nova pyrimidine synthesis
What's the precursor to purine synthesis? What's the enzyme that creates it from ribose-5-phosphate?
Ribose 5-phosphate becomes PRPP through PRPP (5-phosphoribosyl 1-pyrophosphate) synthetase
Carbamoyl phosphate gets converted to _____ in pyrimidine synthesis and requires the amino acid ______.
Orotate
aspartate
What 3 components make up a nucleotide?
Base + ribose + phosphate

They are linked by 3' to 5' phosphodiester bond (but remember that manufacturing is 5' to 3')
What makes up a nucleoside
Nucleoside is base + ribose
What's the difference between transition and transversion in dna synthesis?
Transition: substituting purine for purine or pyrimidine for pyrimidine

Transversion: substituting one for the other
What's the meaning of the following mutations:
silent
missense
nonsense
frameshift
Silent: no effect, usually a base change in 3rd position of codon (tRNA wobble)

Missense: Changed amino acid

Nonsense: Change resulting in early stop codon

Frame shift: change resulting in misreading of all nucleotides downstream, usually results in nonfunctional protein
What does helicase do?
Unwinds DNA template at replication fork
What's an Okasaki fragment? Which strand is it found on?
On the lagging strand, the DNA is 3' to 5' towards the replication fork, so short 5' to 3' fragments have to be made and then ligated using DNA ligase
What is the name of the site where RNA polymerase and other transcription factors bind to DNA upstream from gene locus?
Promoter
What does the enhancer do?
Stretch of DNA that alters gene expression by binding transcription factors
Site where negative regulators bind
Silencer
Of the RNA types, which is most abundant? Which is the longest? Which is the smallest?
rRNA - most abundant (Rampant)
mRNA - longest (Massive)
tRNA - smallest (Tiny)
What direction is mRNA read in protein synthesis?
5' to 3'
What post-translational modifications are made to the peptide in protein synthesis?
Trimming: removal of N- or C-terminal propeptides from zymogens to generate mature proteins

Covalent alterations: phosphorylation, glycosylation and hydroxylation

Proteasomal degradation: attachment of ubiquitin to defective proteins to tag them for breakdown
In what order does cell cycle phases go starting from G0?
G0 to G1 (when stimulated)
G1 to S to G2 to Mitosis to G1
What is the ciilia structure arrangement?
9 + 2 arrangements of microtubules
Which protein is involved in retrograde transport? Which one is involved in anterograde transport?
Retrograde: Dynein
Anterograde: Kinesin
What are collagen types I, II, III, and IV used in primarily?
Type I (90%): Bones (also skin, tendons, dentin, fascia, cornea)
Remember: Type ONE: bONE

Type II: Cartilage (including hyaline), also vitreous body, nucleus pulposus
Remember: TWO: carTWOlage

Type III: Reticulin - skin, blood vessels, uterus, fetal tissue, granulation tissue

Type IV: Basement membrane or basal lamina
Remember: Type IV Under the Floor
What's the difference between adenine, adenosine, adenylate?
Adenine is a base
Adenosine is a nucleoside
Anenylate is a nucleotide
All used in RNA

If it was DNA, it would have a "deoxy" in front of the nucleoside and nucleotide
How is the malonyl acid formed to begin fatty acid synthesis?
Acetyl CoA + CO2 is converted to malonyl CoA with ATP and biotin
How many NADPHs are needed to synthesize palmitate?
12 total

Each cycle through needs 2, the first cycle starts us off with a 4 carbon structure and finishes with a 6 carbon structure and we need 16 carbons for palmitate. So 1st cycle gives us 6, 2nd gives us 8, etc. We need 6 cycles to get to 16.
How many CO2 molecules are given off in fatty acid synthesis of palmitate?
To begin the first cycle, there's one, and in each turn of the cycle there's another. So for palmitate, it would be 6 times through the cycle (6 CO2s) + the 1 to begin: 7 total
How many ATP does beta oxidation of palmitate create?
129

7 x through cycle x 5 (2 ATP for an FADH, 3 ATP for an NADH) + N/2 x 12 for the acetyl CoA
How does a fatty acid get from the cytosol into the mitochondria?
Carnitine shuttle

CAT 1 (located in the outer membrane) takes an AcylCoA and replaces the CoA with carnitine to shuttle it across the intermebranous space.

CAT II (located on the inner side of the inner membrane) takes the AcylCarnitine and replaces the carnitine with another CoA, shuttling the acyl group into the matrix
In beta oxidation of fatty acid, which enzyme creates an NADH?

A) EnoylCoA hydratase
B) Thiolase
C) Acyl CoA dehydrogenase
D) Beta hydroxyacyl CoA dehydrogenase
D

The Acyl CoA dehydrogenase is a good guess but it creates an FADH
What vitamins are required in the oxidation of a fatty acid with an odd-number of carbons?
Biotin and B12 are required to oxidize the final propinyl CoA that is left.
For unsaturated fatty acids going through beta oxidation, how is the total net number of ATP changed from a saturated fatty acid?
For each double bond, we can skip the Acyl Coa dehydrogenase step, which means 1 less FADH (ie 2 less ATP) per double bond.
What do primary bile acids form in the intestines?
Secondary Bile Acids
Converted from primary bile acids by bacteria in intestines
Deoxycholic and Lithocholic acids
Which lipoproteins have apoA1? What does it do?
HDL and chylomicrons

Activates LCAT on cell membranes
Which lipoproteins have apoB100?
VLDL, IDL, LDL
Which lipoproteins have apoB48?
Chylomicrons
What amino acid is required for porphyrin synthesis?
Glycine
What 3 amino acids make up glutathione?
Glutamate, Cysteine, and Glycine
Which amino acids are both ketogenic and glucogenic?
Phe, Ile Thr, Trp, Tyr
What does the enzyme ALT do? What does AST do? What vitamin is a required cofactor?
They are both transaminases.

ALT: Alanine to Pyruvate (reversible)
AST: Aspartate to oxaloacetate (reversible)

They both require PLP (B6)
What 2 other enzyme complexes are similar to the PDH complex, requiring the same cofactors?
1) alpha ketoglutarate dehydrogenase used in the TCA cycle to create alpha-ketoglutarate from isocitrate

2) alpha ketoacid dehydrogenase used to break down branched-chain amino acids
What amino acid is needed to form choline?
Serine
What amino acids are needed to form creatine?
Arginine, glycine, methionine
What amino acid is required to form carnosine?
Histidine
Which form of hemoglobin does CO2 favor, the T or R?
T

Remember, if you're Relaxed, you can do your job better and carry more oxygen!