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75 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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endocrine system
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includes all the endocrine cells and tissue so f then body that produce hormones or paracrine factors c effects beyond their tissues of origin.
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direct communication
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- occurs between two cells of the same type, which have extensive physical contact c each other.
Ex: gap junxns 1) coordinate ciliary movement among epithelial cells 2) coordinate cardiac m. contrxn 3) facilitate propagation of ap at electrical synapses. |
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paracrine communication
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- use of chem messengers to send info from cell to cell within a single tissue.
Ex: prostaglandins and growth factors. |
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hormones
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- chem messengers released from one tissue into the blood stream and transported to alter the activities of specific cells in other tissues and its chem structure is known.
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target cells
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- specific cells that have the necessary receptor for a particular hormone.
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endocrine communication
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- hormones coordinating activities in tissues in distant portions of the body. Slow to start but long lasting.
Ex: Epinephrine (E) and norepinephrine (NE) |
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synaptic communication
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- neurons releasing chem messengers (neurotransmitters) at the synapse of another cell c the appropriate receptors. Short lived by fast.
Ex: also can use E and NE, but also ACh amongst others. |
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Pituitary Hormone Abreviations
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ACTH - adrenocorticotropic hormone
TSH - thyroid stimulating hormone GH - growth hormone PRL - prolactin FSH - follicle-stimulating hormone LH - luteinizing hormone MSH - melanocyte-stimulating hormone |
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hormones of the hypothalamus . . .
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- production of OXT, ADH and regulatory hormones.
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hormones of the pituitary gland . . .
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ANTERIOR LOBE:
ACTH, TSH, GH, PRL, FSH, LH, and MSH. POSTERIOR LOBE: Release of OXT and ADH. |
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hormones of the thyroid gland . . .
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Thyroxine (T4)
Triiodothyronine (T3) Caclitonin (CT) |
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hormones of the adrenal glands . . .
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MEDULLA:
E and NE CORTEX: Cortisol, corticosterone, aldosterone, androgens. |
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hormones of the pancreatic islets . . .
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Insulin, glucagon.
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hormones of the pineal gland . . .
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melatonin.
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hormones of the parathyroid glands . . .
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- located on the posterior of the thyroid gland:
PTH. |
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Organs c secondary endocrine fxns.
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Heart - atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP); brain natriuretic peptide (BNP).
Thymus (undergoes atrophy during adulthood) - thymosins. Adipose Tissue - leptin. Digestive Tract - secretes numerous hormones involved in the coordination of system fans., glucose metabolism, and appetite. Kidneys - erythropoietin (EPO); calcitriol. Gonads: - Testes - androgens (esp. testosterone), inhibin. - Ovaries - estrogens, progesterone, inhibin. |
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down-regulation
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- the cellular process in which the presence of a hormone causes the reduction in hormone receptors in a cell, thus making the cell less sensitive to increased hormone presence.
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up-regulation
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- a process in which the absence of a hormone triggers the increase of hormone receptors on the cell's surface.
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how did G proteins get their name,
and what does it do within the cell? |
they bind GTP, activate/inhibit adenylate cyclase or other secondary messengers. They may also activate calcium ion channels and/or the release of intracellular calcium ion stores.
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what does adenylate cyclase do?
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converts ATP to cAMP.
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what does cAMP do?
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acts as a second messenger, typically by activating kinase.
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what does kinase do?
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phosphorylates another molecule/protein.
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what does phosphodiesterase (PDE) do?
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inactivates cAMP by converting it to AMP.
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what is calmodulin's purpose?
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intracellular Ca+ binds to it and together they act as a secondary messenger
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what things trigger endocrine reflexes?
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humoral stimuli (changes in composition of extracellular fluid), hormonal stimuli (the arrival or removal of a specific hormone), neural stimuli (neurotransmitters arriving at neuroglandular junctions).
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The hypothalamus provides the highest level of endocrine control by integrating the activities of the nervous and endocrine systems in what ways?
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1) by acting as an endocrine gland (OXT and ADH).
2) by secreting regulatory hormones (RHs and IHs). 3) by using its autonomic centers to exert direct neural control over the endocrine cells of the adrenal medullae (E and NE). |
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what generally controls endocrine reflexes?
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negative feedback. Stimulus activates hormones which directly or indirectly reduce the stimulus.
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give another name for the pituitary gland.
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hypophysis
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give another name for the ant. pituitary gland.
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adenohypophysis.
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give another name for the post. pituitary gland.
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neurohypophysis
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what is the target, effect, and hypothalamic regulatory hormone of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and where is it produced?
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Target: Thyroid gland.
Hormonal Effect: Secretion of thyroid hormones. Hypothalamic Regulatory Hormone: TRH. Where: Anterior lobe of pituitary gland |
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what is the target, effect, and hypothalamic regulatory hormone of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and where is it produced?
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Target: adrenal cortex (zona fasciculata).
Hormonal Effect: Secretion of glucocorticoids (cortisol, corticosterone). Hypothalamic Regulatory Hormone: corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH). Where: Ant. lobe of pituitary gland. |
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what is the target, effect, and hypothalamic regulatory hormone of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) in women, and what other category does this hormone fall into? Also, where is it produced
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Target: follicle cells of ovaries.
Hormonal Effect: secretion of estrogen, follicle development. Hypothalamic Regulatory Hormone: gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). Other category: Gonadotropin. Where: Ant. lobe of pituitary gland. |
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what is the target, effect, and hypothalamic regulatory hormone of FSH in men, and what other category does this hormone fall into? And where is it produced?
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Target: Nurse cells of the testes.
Hormonal Effect: stimulation of sperm maturation. Hypothalamic Regulatory Hormone: GnRH Other category: Gonadotropin. Where: Ant. lobe of pituitary gland. |
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what is the target, effect, and hypothalamic regulatory hormone of luteinizing hormone in women, and what other category does it fall into? And where is it produced?
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Target: follicle cells of ovaries.
Hormonal Effect: ovulation, formation of corpus luteum, and secretion of progesterone. Hypothalamic Regulatory Hormone: GnRH. Other category: Gonadotropin. Where: Ant. lobe of pituitary gland. |
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what is the target, effect, and hypothalamic regulatory hormone of luteinizing hormone in men, and what other category does this hormone fall into? And where is it produced?
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Target: interstitial cells of the testes.
Hormonal Effect: secretion of testosterone. Hypothalamic Regulatory Hormone: GnRH. Other category: gonadotropin. Where: Ant. lobe of pituitary gland. |
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what is the target, effect, and hypothalamic regulatory hormone of prolactin, and where is it produced?
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Target: mammary glands
Hormonal Effect: production of milk Hypothalamic Regulatory Hormone: Prolactin-releasing factor (PRF) and Prolactin-inhibiting factor (PIF). Where: Ant. lobe of pituitary gland. |
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what is the target, effect, and hypothalamic regulatory hormone of growth hormone, and where is it produced?
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Target: all cells
Hormonal Effect: growth, protein synthesis, lipid mobilization and catabolism. Hypothalamic Regulatory Hormone: GH-RH and GH-IH. Where: Ant. lobe of pituitary gland. |
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what is the target, effect, and hypothalamic regulatory hormone of melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), and the age population it is active in? And where is it produced?
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Target: melanocytes
Hormonal Effect: increased melanin synthesis in epidermis. Hypothalamic Regulatory Hormone: melanocyte-stimulating hormone-inhibiting hormone (MSH-IH). Ages active in: prior to adulthood. Where: Ant. lobe of pituitary gland. |
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what is the target, effect, and hypothalamic regulatory hormone of antidiuretic hormone (ADH), and where is it produced?
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Target: kidneys
Hormonal Effect: reabsorption of water, elevation of blood volume and pressure. Hypothalamic Regulatory Hormone: NONE. It's trx along axons from supraoptic nucleus to the post. lobe of the pituitary gland. Where: Post. lobe of pituitary gland. Where: |
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what is the target, effect, and hypothalamic regulatory hormone of oxytocin (OXT), and where is it produced?
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Target: (In females) uterus and mammary glands. (In males) ductus deferens and prostate gland.
Hormonal Effect: (In females) labor contractions, and milk ejection. (In males) contraction of ductus deferent and prostate gland. Hypothalamic Regulatory Hormone: NONE. Try along axons from paraventricular nucleus to the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. Where: Post. lobe of pituitary gland. |
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describe the location and structure of the thyroid gland.
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inferior to the thyroid cartilage it curves around the ant. surface of the trachea.
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what is the building block of thyroid hormones?
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tyrosine.
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what are the types of cellular populations in the thyroid gland?
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Follicle cells and C cells. |
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What hormones does the thyroid produce and what are the effects of those hormones?
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thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3): increase O2 and energy consumption, growth and development; may increase body temp.; increase HR and force of contraction - increased BP.
- controlled by TSH from ant. pituitary gland. calcitonin: lowers [Ca+] within the blood by inhibiting osteoclast activity and increasing Ca+ secretion in the kidneys. - stimulated by increased blood [Ca+]. Opposed by PTH. |
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What forms of the hormones are free to enter peripheral tissues?
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unbound.
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what is one example of direct endocrine regulation?
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the release of calcitonin in response to elevated blood [Ca+]. No communication is necessary from the hypothalamus nor from the ant. pituitary.
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where are the parathyroid glands located?
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on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland on its lobes, which are still ant. to the trachea.
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what are the hormones of the parathyroid gland and what are their fnxs.?
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parathyroid hormone (PTH):
- stimulates osteoblasts to produce RANKL which increases osteoclasts and osteoclast activity (osteoclasts lack PTH receptors), thus releasing Ca+ into the blood from bone matrix. - enhances Ca+ resorption by the kidneys, reducing Ca+ excretion. - stimulates formation and secretion of calcitriol (vit. D) by the kidneys, which complements the effects of PTH and enhances Ca+ absorption by the digestive tract. Opposed by calcitonin. |
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describe the structure of the adrenal glands where they are located?
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pyramid-shaped and yellow (from adipose stores), it's suprarenal (atop the kidneys) sitting at about the level of the 12th set of ribs.
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what are some of the hormones of the adrenal glands and at what parts of the gland are they produced?
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mineral corticoids: produced in the zona glomerulosa - specifically aldosterone.
glucocorticoids: produced in the zona fasciculata - cortisol and corticosterone. androgens: produced in the zona reticularis. E and NE: produced in the adrenal medulla. |
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What are the effects of the adrenal hormones?
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aldosterone: incr. renal reabsorption of Na+ and H2O and incr. K+ excretion via urine.
cortisol: incr. rate of glucose and glycogen formation by liver; release of a.a. from skeletal m., and lipids from adipose tissue; promotes peripheral lipid utilization; anti-inflammatory. androgens: adrenal androgens stimulate the development of pubic hair in boys and girls before puberty. E and NE: incr. cardiac activity, BP, glycogen breakdown, BGL; release lipids by adipose tissue. |
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Describe the location of the pineal gland.
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part of the epithalamus, it lies in the posterior portion of the roof of the third ventricle.
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Name the hormone(s) of the pineal gland and its/their fxns.
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melatonin: influencing circadian rhythms; protecting against free radical damage; inhibit reproductive fxns.
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Describe the location and structure of the pancreas.
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mostly retroperitoneal, it lies in the loop of the duodenum. It's a slender pale organ c a nodular texture. Consists of the endocrine pancreas (pancreatic islets or Islets of Langerhans) and the exocrine pancreas (clusters of pancreatic acini).
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List the cells types of the islets of Langerhans and their associated hormones.
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Alpha cells: produce glucagon.
Beta cells: produce insulin. Delta cells: produces a peptide hormone identical to GH-IH. F cells: produce pancreatic polypeptide. |
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What is the fxn. of glucagon?
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it raises blood glucose levels by increasing rates of glycogen breakdown in the liver.
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Describe insulin.
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A peptide hormone released when blood glucose [ ] rise above the normal 70-110mg/dL. Lowers blood glucose levels by increasing rate of glucose uptake and usage by most body cells, and by increasing glycogen synthesis in skeletal m. and the liver.
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What cells are insulin dependent and what does it mean to be insulin dependent?
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Most body cells are insulin dependent, meaning they have insulin receptors and that those receptors are necessary for that cell to uptake glucose.
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What cells are insulin independent and what does it mean to be insulin independent?
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Cells in the brain, kidneys, lining of the digestive tract, and RBCs. These lack insulin receptors and are able to absorb and utilize glucose sin insulin stimulation.
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What are the effects of insulin on its target cells?
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- accelerating glucose uptake at all target cells by increasing the number of glucose trx proteins.
- accelerating glucose utilization at all target cells and enhance ATP production and glycogen formation in skeletal m and liver cells. - stimulating a.a. absorption and protein synthesis. - stimulating triglyceride formation in adipose tissue by stimulating the absorption of fatty acids and glycerol by adipocytes. |
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What are the effects of glucagon?
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- secreted by alpha cells, it binds to receptor sites on target cells, activating adenylate cyclase.
- stimulates breakdown of glycogen in skeletal m. and liver cells. - stimulates breakdown of triglycerides in adipose tissue. - stimulates production and release of glucose by the liver, which absorbs a.a. from blood before converting them to glucose. |
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what are the causes of insulin and glucagon production, and what cells are responsible for determining when its necessary for their release?
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- high blood glucose levels trigger the release of more insulin.
- low blood glucose levels trigger the release of glucagon. - alpha cells monitor for lowering BGL and release glucagon in response to decreasing BGL. - beta cells monitor for increasing BGL and release insulin in response to rising BGL. |
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what do delta cells do?
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produce GH-IH, which suppresses the release of insulin and glucagon and lowers the rate of food absorption and enzyme secretion along the digestive tract.
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what do F cells do?
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produce the hormone pancreatic polypeptide, which inhibits gallbladder contractions and regulates some pancreatic enzyme production.
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what is Type 1 diabetes?
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its characterized by the inadequate production of insulin by pancreatic beta cells.
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what is Type 2 diabetes?
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is the most common form of diabetes mellitus and is characterized by insulin resistance, where the individual produces adequate amounts of insulin (at least initially) but their tissues do not respond appropriately to it.
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what does it mean when a hormone has antagonistic effects?
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- two hormones have an opposing effect to each other with the net result depending on the balance of each hormone.
Ex: glucagon and insulin; calcitonin and calcitriol. |
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what does it mean when a hormone has synergistic effects?
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- two hormones may have additive effects so that the two hormones would have a greater effect than acting alone and synergism comes about when the two hormones have an effect greater than their sum.
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what does it mean when a hormone has permissive effects?
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- one hormone is needed in order for another to work.
Ex: E cannot change energy consumption sin the presence of normal thyroid hormone levels. |
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what does it mean when a hormone has integrative effects?
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- important in coordinating complex physiological systems, hormones may produce different, but complementary, results in specific organs or tissues.
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what are the parts of the general adaptation syndrome (GAS)?
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Alarm Phase (Fight or Flight)
Resistance Phase Exhaustion Phase |
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what happens in the Alarm phase of GAS?
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- sympathetic activation causes increased mental alertness and energy use by all cells. Glycogen and lipid reserves are mobilized. Decreased urine prod. and digestive activity. Increased HR and RR.
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what happens in the Resistance phase of GAS?
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- remaining energy reserves are released (lipids and a.a.s). Conservation of glucose by peripheral tissues to save it for neural tissues. Gluconeogenesis to elevate BGL by using other carbs., lipids, and a.a.s. Conservation of salts and H2O. Loss of K+ and H+.
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what happens in the Exhaustion phase of GAS?
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- exhaustion of lipid reserves. Structural and/or fxnal damage to vital organs. Inability to produce glucocorticoids and failure of electrolyte balance.
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