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398 Cards in this Set
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John strongly believes that people on welfare are not interested in working; his tendency to pay special attention when stories about welfare fraud appear on TV is an example of the social cognition bias called __________.
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confirmation bias
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Phred the phrenologist believes the area of “Destructiveness” was located just above the top of the ears and pointed out that many vicious killers had enlargements in that part of their skull. The type of evidence being used by Phred is called __________ evidence.
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anecdotal evidence
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TV commercials trying to persuade you to buy a product because 9 out of 10 doctors recommend it are asking you to rely on Peirce’s method of _________.
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authority
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As psychologists use the term, ________ simply means that behaviors occur in certain situations regularly enough to be predicted with some degree of certainty greater than pure chance.
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statistical determinism
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Ed says he has a headache. His verbal description of how it feels is an example of a(n) __________ report. Because only he can experience it, his description lacks _________.
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introspective; objectivity
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Psychological scientists try to ask ________ questions, that is, question answerable with data.
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empirical
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“Do people become more religious as they age?” is an example of an empirical question. An example of a specific __________ would be “People who are age 70 are more likely to attend church than people who are age 50.”
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hypothesis
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All good theories are capable of disproof, and attribute of theories known as _________.
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falsification
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Sarah, who watches a lot of shows featuring real police chasing criminals, believes she is highly likely to be a victim of a carjacking. Her belief reflects the social cognition bias of the ___________.
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availability heuristic
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When psychological scientists use the word __________ to describe one of the goals of psychology, they are referring to the application of psychological principles to improve the human condition.
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control
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Ann is showing indications of ___________ when she says that the $50 subliminal tape she has been using has been remarkable in its ability to make her stop smoking.
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effort justification
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On the basis of careful observations, a researcher classified children’s play into three categories: solitary, parallel, and interacting. This work is a good example of the research psychologist’s goal of ____________.
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description
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enables predictions to be made
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law
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Galton and the effectiveness of prayer
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data driven
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overestimating based on vivid memory
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availability heuristic
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prediction
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hypothesis
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observable to more than one person
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objectivity
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only recalls events consistent with one’s opinion
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confirmation bias
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“I know it’s true. End of discussion.”
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belief perseverance
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experience is the best teacher
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empiricism
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questionable due to effort justification
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anecdotal evidence
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“I don’t know. What does the book say?”
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authority
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What is the most important way in which a research methods course differs from a course in social psychology?
a. the methods course will have a focus on ethics, while the social psychology course will not consider ethics b. the social psychology course will have a greater emphasis on statistics c. the methods course will emphasize how research occurs, while the social psychology course will focus on the research outcomes themselves d. the social psychology course will emphasize process, while the research methods course will emphasize content |
a. ethics will be a part of both courses
b. the opposite is true c. CORRECT ANSWER – this reflects the process/content distinction d. the opposite is true |
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Which of the following is true about belief perseverance?
a. it is the basis for Peirce’s way of knowing called the “a priori” method b. it is a tendency for events to stand out in our minds because we keep seeing them on the news c. it refers to the fact that most of our strong beliefs are formed in childhood, and last throughout adulthood d. it refers to an unwillingness have one’s opinions changed, even by solid scientific evidence |
a. the “a priori” method concerns the use of logic and persuasive argument
b. this is the availability heuristic c. overstates the importance of childhood d. CORRECT ANSWER |
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To illustrate the weakness of _____________ as a way of knowing, Peirce pointed out that philosophers have been debating different sides of the mind-body question for hundreds of years
a. confirmation bias b. the a priori method c. the method of authority d. empiricism |
a. has problems as a way of knowing, but not this one
b. CORRECT ANSWER – a priori method being Peirce’s label for relying on logical argument c. problematic because authorities can be wrong d. not used by Peirce |
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Ed believes he is in telepathic communication with Sally because it seems like every time he thinks of her, she calls him on the phone. He ignores all the times he is thinking of her and she doesn’t call. That is, he is being affected by
a. a confirmation bias b. the availability heuristic c. statistical determinism d. belief perseverance |
a. CORRECT ANSWER
b. tendency to think that events that stand out in memory occur more often than they really do c. belief that events can be known with greater than chance accuracy d. belief held strongly, even in the face of contradictory evidence |
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One of the main reasons why behaviorism became popular in the United States was that:
a. it relied on introspection as a means of understanding why we do things b. its way of defining what was being studied met the scientific criterion of objectivity c. it emphasized research, while introspective psychologists were not interested in research d. it took complex concepts and reduced them to simplistic ideas that were easily understood |
a. behaviorists rejected introspection
b. CORRECT ANSWER – behaviors can be measured objectively (i.e., two observers can agree that a particular behavior occurred c. introspective psychologists were very interested in research d. this is an attribute of pseudoscience; introspective psychologists were legitimate scientists |
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Of the following questions, only one is an empirical question. Which one?
a. Can people be truly evil? b. Are people basically good, but corrupted by society? c. Will males or females be more likely to give blood? d. How does the mind exert its influence of the physical body? |
a. not easily answerable with data
b. not easily answerable with data c. CORRECT ANSWER d. not easily answerable with data |
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How do psychological scientists use the concept of determinism?
a. they believe that human behavior can be predicted with more than chance probability b. they believe that it means free choice is impossible c. they believe that our behaviors have been predetermined from our births d. they don’t use it – they reject it |
a. CORRECT ANSWER
b. unless events are to some degree predictable, useful choices cannot be made c. this is a form of “predestination” – psychologist reject this d. may be true of some humanistic psychologists, but not true of the majority of psychologists |
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What does it mean to say that advocates of a pseudoscience “sidestep disproof?”
a. they divorce themselves completely from legitimate science, calling scientists “those of little faith” b. apparent falsification can be explained away by proposing additional mechanisms to account for the problem c. they only mention supporting evidence; nonsupporting evidence is forgotten d. they use definitions of terms that are so precise that when apparent disproof occurs, they just say the result must refer to some other phenomenon |
a. they actually try to associate themselves with real science
b. CORRECT ANSWER – for instance, when confronted with a murderer with a small area of destructiveness, phrenologists would show how the person could be “explained” by some other combination of faculties c. true enough about pseudoscience, but not the “sidesteps disproof” problem d. their definitions of terms are very imprecise |
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After research shows that a form of behavior therapy can reduce phobic responses, therapists begin using the technique in their practices. Which of the goals of research in psychology is being reflected here?
a. explanation b. prediction c. description d. application |
a. explanation would concern why the therapy worked
b. prediction would refer to the lawful relationship between the therapy and its outcome c. description would provide a clear narrative account of the therapy d. CORRECT ANSWER – this would be a useful application, based on scientific research |
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When explaining behavior, psychologists are generally willing to say that factor X is causing phenomenon Y to occur when several criteria have been met. Which of the following is not one of those criteria?
a. other explanations for Y can be ruled out b. X comes before Y c. in terms of some theory, X “makes” sense as an explanation for Y d. Y always occurs when X is present |
a. an important criterion
b. also an important criterion c. this one too d. CORRECT ANSWER – it is more accurate to say that Y occurs when X is present “with a greater than chance probability” |
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What does it mean to say that scientific thinking includes the characteristic of objectivity?
a. it means that scientists do not let human biases affect their work b. it refers only to measurements that are made by some mechanical instrument, thereby eliminating influence c. it refers to observations that can be verified by two or more observers d. it refers to psychologists’ near obsession with the idea of answering questions by referring to data |
a. scientists try to avoid bias, but all scientists are human and some degree of bias is inevitable
b. measures not using instruments (e.g., observations of behavior) can also achieve objectivity c. CORRECT ANSWER – this is the standard definition d. psychologists might be obsessed with data, but the trait does not define objectivity |
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John has a strong belief that people on welfare are content to receive “free money” and are not really interested in working. He is especially likely to notice, pay special attention to, and recall news stories about welfare fraud, thereby illustrating
a. a confirmation bias b. his reliance on the authority of experts in forming his opinion c. the availability heuristic d. an effort justification on his part |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – he will attend to and recall information that seems to confirm the bias
b. news stories aren’t necessary perceived as coming from expert authority c. this would occur if there were several highly publicized stories that would stick in memory d. this is when we expend great effort, then have to convince ourselves that the effort was worth it |
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According to the text, there are four goals of scientific psychology. Which of the following activity falls under the category of “application?”
a. accurately categorizing several varieties of schizophrenia b. establishing laws so that estimates can be made about what people will do in certain circumstances c. placing a higher value on research that takes place in the laboratory d. using the results of eyewitness memory research to train police to interview witnesses more efficiently |
a. this is the goal of description
b. this involves the goal of prediction c. not related to the goals d. CORRECT ANSWER—this would be a useful application of psychological knowledge |
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All of the following are associated with pseudoscience except
a. any possible outcome can be “explained” by the theory b. relatively simple phenomena are given extremely complex explanations c. a deliberate attempt is made to associate the pseudoscience with some normal scientific work d. there is a heavy reliance on anecdotal evidence |
a. true—illustrates the property of sidestepping disproof
b. CORRECT ANSWER—the opposite is true c. this is true d. this is true |
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According to Kuhn, what is the consequence of a researcher’s reluctance to give up on a theory?
a. the researcher will be quickly recognized as a pseudoscientific fraud b. the theory won’t be abandoned by the scientific community until it has been fully tested c. other researchers will become suspicious and the theory will be abandoned before it has been adequately tested d. the researcher’s perseverance will pay off and others will be convinced |
a. were this to be the case, just about all scientists would be considered frauds
b. CORRECT ANSWER—although the scientists must be careful not to confuse perseverance with obsession c. without the researcher’s passion, the theory might be given up too soon d. this could happen, but the wording (“will happen”) implies “all the time” and this is not so |
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A debriefing that adequately alleviates the participant’s stress but fails to make the true purpose of the study clear has succeeded at __________ but failed at ___________.
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desensitizing, dehoaxing
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The first APA ethics code was developed empirically using the ___________ procedure.
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critical incidents
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Potential research participants who receive enough information to make a reasonable decision about whether to volunteer for a study have satisfied that ethical requirement for _________________.
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informed consent
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_____________ is a type of scientific fraud that involves deliberately using the ideas of someone else without giving proper credit to the source.
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plagiarism
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In order to conduct research with human participants, researchers must gain the approval of the _________.
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IRB
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In a research study using fifth graders, informed consent is needed of parents, but _________ of the children is also needed.
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assent
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John, who is running an experiment, tells Sally that her roommate participated in the study; this is a violation of ____________.
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confidentiality
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sufficient information to decide to participate
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informed consent
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only in a study involving deception
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dehoaxing
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stealing an idea
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plagiarism
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principles for behaving as a good person
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ethics
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method for developing first ethics code
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critical incidents
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often detected through failure to replicate
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data falsification
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post experiment requirement
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debriefing
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judges ethical adequacy of a study
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IRB
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reducing stress of a participant
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desensitizing
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Which of the following is true about Watson and Rayner’s Little Albert study?
a. they had parental consent but lacked Albert’s assent b. they were able to justify doing it because they removed the fear at the end of the study c. its main purpose was to try out various ways of removing a fear in a child who was afraid of rabbits d. they did not think that an unusual level of harm would occur because similar fears would be learned by Albert anyway |
a. it is not clear that consent was given; Albert was too young for assent to be possible
b. they failed to remove the fear c. this was the purpose of the Mary Cover Jones study d. CORRECT ANSWER – this was their pragmatic rationale for doing the study; they also believed Albert was physically strong and would be able to withstand the procedures |
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The requirement for informed consent in research with human participants
a. is one of the five “general principles” of the 2002 code b. means that deception about the true purpose of a study is not allowed in research with humans c. is not needed unless the participants are “at risk” d. means that sufficient information must be available for people to decide whether to participate |
a. it is a “standard” not a “general principle”
b. deception is allowed under certain circumstances c. consent is needed except under very limited circumstances (e.g., naturalistic observation) d. CORRECT ANSWER – note that the requirement is not that participants know every single detail about the study, however |
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Consider the following hypothetical titles of articles from journals in psychology. Which of them is most likely to have required a formal review by an IRB?
a. the effects of crowding on depression b. gender differences in the content of personal ads c. the influence of repeated practice on recall from long-term memory d. a survey of attitudes toward animal research |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – crowding could be traumatic and depression is a clinical term; participants would probably be at risk in this study
b. participants not involved c. minimal risk – expedited review OK d. minimal risk – expedited review OK |
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Which of the following statements would you be least likely to find in an informed consent form?
a. there is no penalty for not starting the study, but once you begin, you are obligated to complete the session b. your data will be coded in a way that will protect your identity c. the full purpose of the study will be explained to you at the end of the session and the complete results of the study will be available to you when the study is over d. this study has been approved by the university’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – participants must be allowed to discontinue participation
b. confidentiality c. debriefing d. important provision |
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As used in Chapter 2, the term “desensitizing” refers to
a. exposing participants to repeated deception (they get used to it) b. the part of debriefing designed to alleviate any stress experienced by the participant c. the reassuring effects on participants when they have the opportunity to read and sign a consent form d. explaining the true purposes and hypotheses of the study once a session has been completed |
a. doing this would be unethical
b. CORRECT ANSWER c. not relevant d. this is “dehoaxing” |
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From an ethical standpoint, what was the most serious problem with Milgram’s study?
a. there was no debriefing b. there was no attempt to follow up on people to see if they had been adversely affected by the experience c. participants who wished to stop were told they had to continue d. by using a captive population (college students required to participate) he failed to meet the need for informed consent |
a. debriefing occurred – its extent is unclear
b. Milgram used a psychiatrist to check on participants’ reactions c. CORRECT ANSWER – this conflicts with the principle that uncomfortable participants should be given the opportunity to quit the experiment without penalty d. by recruiting in the local community, he specifically avoided using college students |
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For a study evaluating a brand new therapy for depression among the elderly, what ethical safeguard has been added in the most recent ethics code?
a. participants must give assent as well as consent b. participants do not have to be debriefed because they will already know the study’s goal c. participants have to be told the procedure used to assign people to groups d. because of the high cost of this type of research, the normal provision allowing participants to quit any time is suspended |
a. Assent applies to the use of children in research
b. debriefing is always required c. CORRECT ANSWER—this enables participants to judge fairness d. the opportunity to discontinue participation is never suspended |
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Studies on the use of deception in psychological research show that
a.it isn’t needed; participants asked to role play produce the same results as naive volunteers b.students are more likely to judge a specific deception experiment to be unethical than are research psychologists c.it is indeed harmful; most of Milgram’s subjects needed counseling after going through the obedience study d.participants fully informed about the purpose of a study often behave very differently from those not given full information |
a. participants asked to role play seldom produce the same results as naïve volunteers
b. the opposite is true c. Milgram’s participants appeared to be fine after the study d. CORRECT ANSWER—the book used the example of research on predictable noise |
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Consider the Willowbrook, Tuskegee, and MK-ULTRA projects. What did they all have in common?
a. they all had the ultimate goal of improving medical practice b. by using children, they all failed to gain assent, even though they did gain consent c. they all failed to meet the criterion of informed consent d. all three studies were rejected by IRBs, yet were conducted anyway |
a. true only of the first two
b. only the Willowbrook study used children c. CORRECT ANSWER – what little consent existed in these studies was far from informed d. IRBs didn’t exist when these studies began |
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In a study of concept learning in first-graders, all of the following should happen except
a. to help make the experience enjoyable, children should be given substantial incentives to participate b. parents must give consent c. teachers of the children in their classes should give informed consent d. the children should be asked if they want to participate |
a. CORRECT ANSWER- substantial incentives can be coercive
b. this should happen c. so should this d. so should this (assent) |
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The goal of MK-ULTRA was to
a. see if LSD could have beneficial medical effects b. determine whether LSD could be used as an effective weapon in the Cold War c. conduct basic research on the psychological effects of a new and unknown drug – LSD d. see if taking LSD would improve Army morale |
a. some research had this goal, but not the MK-ULTRA project
b. CORRECT ANSWER – its effects were not well known at the time c. the military tends to fund applied rather than basic research d. not relevant |
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Which of the following is least likely to occur as an ethical problem with e-research?
a. people are not likely to be able to stop once they have begun participating b. informed consent cannot be completely monitored c. debriefing could be avoided d. privacy could be invaded |
a. CORRECT ANSWER—it’s easy to exit a website
b. for instance, a 15-year-old to log onto the site c. participants could just leave the site d. this can especially happen for the kind of e-research that involves monitoring chat rooms |
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Neal Miller’s article on the use of animals in psychological research is described in Chapter 2. According to Miller,
a. using animals is OK for medical research, but animals shouldn’t be used to study psychology b. psychology could not progress without studying animals, especially when you consider that about half of all research in psychology uses animals c. animal research should be limited to primates because they are more similar to humans than other animals d. studying animal behavior not only benefits humans, animals benefit as well |
a. using animals is OK for both medical and psychological research
b. less than 10% of research in psychology uses animals c. Miller didn’t argue this, nor would other advocates of animal research d. CORRECT ANSWER – for example, improving zoos |
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All of the following are part of the ethics code for animal research except
a. the researcher must be an expert concerning the species being studied b. procedures using reinforcement are preferred over those using punishment c. animal studies that are purely educational in purpose cannot be done d. if the animal must be killed at the end of the study, a painless procedure must be used |
a. important part of the code
b. also important c. CORRECT ANSWER – under certain circumstances, animals can be used for purely educational purposes d. also important |
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The Burt case illustrates the fact that
a. falsified data might not noticed if other research produces the same conclusions b. scientific fraud is often caught when odd results fail to replicate c. quite a bit gets missed in the peer review process for journals d. it is usually easy to spot falsified data – they just seem too bizarre to the experienced scientist |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – like other researchers, Burt presented data supporting the importance of a genetic factor in intelligence
b. Burt produced results that later replicated c. true, but not relevant in the Burt case d. often true, but not relevant in the Burt case |
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According to Aronson, it is generally true that an experiment with __________ realism has more value to science than a study with __________ realism.
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experimental; mundane
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Near the end of Chapter 1, you learned how Skinner produced his first extinction curves when the food magazine accidentally broke; this event illustrates the phenomenon of ____________.
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serendipity
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Hypotheses are derived from theory through the logical process of ____________.
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deduction
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A dog’s escape behavior could be the result of trial-and-error learning or it could be an example of sophisticated reasoning and planning by the dog. The first explanation is more ___________ than the second.
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parsimonious
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A researcher is trying to design a study to rule out the possibility that a rat needs its sense of smell to learn a maze. This is an example of what Popper called a ___________ strategy.
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falsification
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The perception of inconsistency leads to a state of “cognitive dissonance,” according to Festinger. The term “cognitive dissonance” is an example of a _________.
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construct
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The theory of cognitive dissonance, proposed in the 1950s, is still leading to predictions that result in research. That is, on the criterion of _________the theory has been a very good one.
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productivity
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A general category of research that de-emphasizes the importance of statistical analysis is known as ___________ research.
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qualitative
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___________ thinking occurs in science when a researcher sees a connection between two seemingly unrelated ideas.
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creative
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Jack has developed an elaborate procedure for a study on cognitive mapping. Before starting the experiment, he collects data on a few people to determine if his procedure is appropriate and understandable to participants. That is, Jack has conducted a _____________.
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pilot study
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After reading about a study on language development that compared two- and three-year olds, a researcher decides to repeat the study, but add a third group—four-year olds. That is, the study includes both replication and _________.
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extension
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A good _______________ will describe a construct in terms of a specific and easily measurable behavior.
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operational definition
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to show that Clever Hans couldn’t do math
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falsification
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Milgram’s study had plenty of it
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experimental realism
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adequate explanation with fewest assumptions
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parsimonious
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more likely to occur in than out of the lab
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basic research
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summarizes existing knowledge
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theory
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inferred from behavior
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construct
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Egeland’s research on reading
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applied research
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from specific findings to broad conclusions
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induction
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increases confidence in the validity of a study
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replication
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educated guess about a study’s outcome
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hypothesis
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Statistical analyses are least likely to be found in
a. applied research b. qualitative research c. field research d. basic research |
a. both basic and applied research are highly likely to include statistical analyses
b. CORRECT ANSWER – there might be some summary statistics in a qualitative study, but for the most part, the results will be reported as a narrative analysis c. field research, unless it is qualitative research, will be likely to use statistical analysis d. both basic and applied research are highly likely to include statistical analyses |
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Which of the following is true about field research?
a. it can involve applied research, but it is more likely to involve basic research b. unlike laboratory research, ethics is seldom a problem in applied research c. it can produce results that improve the lives of those being studied d. because of the lack of control, field research is always qualitative research |
a. the opposite is true
b. ethical issues occur in all psychological research c. CORRECT ANSWER – the Sternberg research on cognitive functioning of children infected with intestinal parasites is a good example d. field research can easily be quantitative |
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For drawing conclusions about human behavior, Aronson argued that experimental realism was more critical than mundane realism. What does it mean to say that a study is high in experimental realism?
a. it is a tightly controlled experiment, occurring in a laboratory setting b. it involves basic research (the distinction reflects Aronson’s preference for basic over applied research) c. it means that even if the study takes place in a lab, to the participants it seems like an everyday real-life situation d. it means that participants become involved in the study and behave naturally |
a. non-lab studies can easily have experimental realism
b. applied research can easily have experimental realism c. whether it seems like real-life is not relevant to the issue of experimental realism d. CORRECT ANSWER – it’s best if participants are involved in the procedure |
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Which of the following is true about the Dutton and Aron studies on romantic love?
a. good example of the how a finding is strengthened if it happens both in the lab and in the field b. good illustration of the strengths of qualitative research c. its shortcomings are a good example of the need for parsimonious explanations d. high on mundane realism; low on experimental realism |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – the lab study controlled for “type of men in the study” and strengthened the overall conclusion about romantic love
b. it is not an example of qualitative research c. Dutton and Aron’s explanations for the outcome are reasonably parsimonious d. in the lab study, high on mundane; in the field study, high on both |
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. What is meant by the concept of “converging operations?”
a. it refers to studies using different operational definitions that yield similar results b. it refers to the combined results of several studies using identical operational definitions c. over the years, consensus emerges in different labs about the one true operational definition of a construct d. it refers to the process by which ideas for applied research derive from the findings of basic research |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – studies using different operational definitions of hunger in a maze study was the example used in the chapter
b. different researchers often use different operational definitions c. might be true, but not what is meant by converging operations d. not relevant |
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Chapter 1’s description of how Skinner first produced an extinction curve is a good example of
a. a parsimonious explanation b. falsification as a strategy c. a serendipitous finding d. scientific creativity |
a. not relevant
b. not relevant c. CORRECT ANSWER – he returned to find the effects of a jammed pellet dispenser d. what he did after making the serendipitous discovery might have been creative |
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On the basis of some theory, a prediction about the outcome of an experiment is made. The experiment does not come out as expected. What is most likely to be concluded?
a. the theory has been disproven and should be discarded b. the experiment does not support the theory c. the experiment was not done properly d. the experiment tells us nothing about the theory |
a. one disconfirming experiment won’t eliminate a theory
b. CORRECT ANSWER – notice that the theory isn’t discarded just on the basis of one disconfirmation c. worth checking out, but not necessarily the problem d. the experiment might raise questions about the theory if it was run properly |
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All of the following are true about theories except
a. they organize and summarize existing knowledge about a topic b. they are tentative until the facts prove them true c. they provide possible explanations for the phenomenon under study d. they lead to testable hypotheses through the process of deduction |
a. part of the standard definition
b. CORRECT ANSWER – this is the common misconception about theory c. part of the standard definition d. part of the standard definition |
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Young boys imitate their fathers at times. According to the text, the learning theory explanation for this phenomenon has an edge over the Freudian theory because
a. learning theory has been productive, but Freud’s theory has generated very little research b. learning theory has been shown to be true, whereas Freudian theory has been falsified c. learning theory is more parsimonious than Freudian theory d. none of the above – because of its greater complexity, Freudian theory can explain much more than learning theory |
a. both theories have been productive
b. close, but this greatly overstates the case c. CORRECT ANSWER – fewer assumptions in learning theory d. Freudian theory’s complexity and vagueness has led to charges that it is not testable |
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Pfungst demonstrated that when Clever Hans’s questioner did not know the answer to a math problem, Hans didn’t know it either. This demonstration is an example of
a. falsification b. productivity c. parsimony d. serendipity |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – the higher mental ability (math skill) was ruled out (falsified)
b. not relevant c. parsimony comes into play when Pfungst proposed an simpler explanation for the horse’s apparent skill d. not relevant |
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According to the text, the most common source of ideas for new research in psychology is
a. some everyday observation that generates curiosity b. unanswered questions from a study recently completed c. deduction from theory d. serendipity |
a. important source of ideas, probably a close second
b. CORRECT ANSWER – the result of an answer to the “what’s next?” question c. close, and somewhat related to alternative b. d. also important, but not as common as the other three alternatives |
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Which of the following true about the relationship between theory building and data collection?
a. when studies come out as expected, inductive support for the theory is gained b. if an experiment fails, discarding the experiment is an example of affirming the consequent c. when a hypothesis is not supported, virtually nothing has been learned about the theory d. a good theory will be inclusive enough to explain every possible research outcome |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – note that there is no mention of the theory being “proven”
b. affirming the consequent occurs when the experiment succeeds, and the researcher erroneously concludes that the theory has been shown to be true c. non-support can say a lot about a theory (e.g., lead to modifications) d. not good – if this happens, the theory cannot be falsified and is therefore useless |
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Pfungst demonstrated that Clever Hans, rather than performing complex math, was reading and responding to visual cues. That is, Pfungst
a. showed that theories can never be proven true b. provided a more parsimonious explanation of the horse’s behavior c. provided an example of a serendipitous finding d. committed the fallacy of affirming the consequent |
a. if anything, Pfungst was demonstrating disproof (falsification)
b. CORRECT ANSWER –perceptual learning is more parsimonious than assuming the horse capable of high level cognition c. this was a systematic, planned study d. this happens when someone erroneously thinks they have “proven” a theory |
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Which of the following research projects developed after researchers made some everyday observations of human behavior?
a. Aronson’s research showing that cognitive dissonance is strongest when one of the cognitions relates to the self concept b. Zeigarnick’s research showing that memory is best for incomplete tasks c. the investigation of the alleged abilities of Clever Hans d. Small’s maze learning research |
a. Aronson’s research evolved through testing dissonance theory
b. CORRECT ANSWER – Zeigarnick’s research derived from observations of a waiter with a good memory c. this study was in response to a claim of mental ability in a horse d. this research was an attempt to study home-finding in rats |
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Which of the following is true about creative thinking in science?
a. scientists are “objective,” unlike artists, so there is very little creativity in science b. creativity is most likely to occur when the scientists doesn’t know very much about the research topic in question c. in science, creativity is limited to the invention of apparatus (i.e., technological advances) d. creative thinking in science requires some level of knowledge about a subject being investigated |
a. there is a great deal of creativity in science
b. the opposite is true c. creativity includes the invention of apparatus, but also includes the development of methodology, control procedures, ideas for testing theory, etc. d. CORRECT ANSWER – chance favors the prepared mind |
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If there is a great deal of _____________, then reliability will be low.
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measurement error
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If scores on some measure (e.g., an IQ test) are good at predicting future performance (e.g., grades in school), the measure will be said to have __________ validity.
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criterion
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When creating a new measure of self-efficacy, construct validity is strengthened if the new measure correlates with a measure of confidence. This would be an example of __________ validity.
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convergent
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Scores on most personality tests are measured on a(n) ___________ scale.
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interval
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In general, __________ statistics are used when answering the question, “How would you best summarize the performance of participants on the color blindness test?”
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descriptive
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If a single number is used to describe a set of scores, and you know that an equal number of scores occurred above and below the reported number, you know that the number is the ________.
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median
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The most frequently used measure of the variability in a set of scores is the __________.
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standard deviation
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Rather than using a standard deviation as a measure of variability, it is better to use _________ if there are one or two significant __________.
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interquartile range; outliers
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A researcher finds a significant difference in map-reading skill between males and females. Several other labs attempt to replicate the finding and all fail to get the same results. If this failure to replicate continues, suspicion will grow that the initial study was a _________ error.
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type I
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In a typical inferential analysis, the researcher hopes that _________ variance will be high, and __________ variance will be low.
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systematic; error
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somatotypes
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interval scale
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directly related to sample size
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power
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classifying events
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nominal scale
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score seen most often
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mode
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result of failures to reject H0 (what effect)
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file drawer effect
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high score minus low score
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range
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fail to find a true difference (what type of error)
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Type II error
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extreme scores
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outliers
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no true difference (what hypothesis)
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null hypothesis
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reduces reliability
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measurement error
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Which of the following was true about the Kim and Spelke study on the development of the concept of gravity?
a. it relied on the use of reaction time methodology b. after habituation occurred, it was assumed that if the child understood gravity, it would pay the most attention to an event that was consistent with the law of gravity c. after habituation occurred, it was assumed that if the child understood gravity, it would pay the most attention to an event that violated the law of gravity d. after habituation occurred, it was assumed that if the child understood gravity, it would pay the most attention to an event that had two stimulus changes rather than one |
a. it relied on habituation methodology
b. an event consistent with gravity would result in continued habituation in this case c. CORRECT ANSWER - an event violating gravity would catch this child’s attention d. this was in fact true for the child who did not grasp gravity (the 5 month olds) |
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In the Shepard and Metzler study on mental rotation, it was assumed that
a. males would outperform females on the task b. decision times would be proportional to the amount of mental rotation required to make the stimuli overlap c. reaction time would be faster for pairs rotated 180o than for pairs rotated 90o d. the task was actually a verbal one—they were trying to falsify the idea that visual imagery could be involved |
a. this is indeed an outcome of this research, but not an assumption at the outset
b. CORRECT ANSWER – this was their rationale for using reaction time c. the opposite would be expected d. their research supported the idea that visual imagery existed |
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If a measure used in psychology is reliable, then
a. it will have zero measurement error b. it will probably also be valid c. it can be used to predict what someone will do d. taking a second measurement will produce a similar result |
a. all measures have some degree of measurement error – none is perfect
b. not necessarily – see the next question c. this is only true is the measure is also valid d. CORRECT ANSWER – this is a common way to asses reliability |
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Phrenologists believed that the faculty of “amativeness,” or physical love, was located in the area of the cerebellum. They would measure the width of the head just below and behind the ears. We now know that the cerebellum controls motor coordination. Which of the following is true?
a. the phrenologists’ measure was probably very reliable b. the phrenologists’ measure both reliable and valid c. the phrenologists’ measure was neither reliable nor valid d. the phrenologists’ measure must have contained a great deal of measurement error |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – their measures would be the same tomorrow as today
b. they were reliable but not valid c. they were reliable d. because they were reliable, the opposite was true |
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Which of the following empirical questions is most likely to be answered by a measure using a nominal scale of measurement?
a. Are psychologist majors or biology majors more likely to be Democrats? b. When ranking movies for levels of sex and aggression, do males and females differ? c. Will rats make more errors in a maze when they are hungry or when they are full? d. Will endomorphs then to be viscerotonic or cerebrotonic? |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – categories are involved here
b. the term “ranking” is a tip-off that an ordinal scale is involved c. errors – true zero possible, therefore ratio d. interval scales in Sheldon’s body type research |
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What differentiates interval from ratio scales of measurement?
a. interval scales have equal intervals between points on the scale – ratio scales don’t always have these equal intervals b. in ratio scales, a higher number always means “more” of the phenomenon being measured; interval scales don’t maintain this “order” characteristic c. scores of zero are not possible on interval scales d. on ratio scales, a score of zero means the absence of the phenomenon being measured |
a. both interval and ratio scales maintain the equal interval assumption
b. “order” is maintained in both interval and ratio scales c. scores of zero can occur on interval scales, but they aren’t a true zero d. CORRECT ANSWER – this is a true zero |
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Consider the following pairs of measures and measurement scales. Which one of them is inappropriately paired?
a.temperature in Celsius – ratio b. scores on a 7-point scale of somatotonia – interval c. class standing (first in the class, second, etc.) – ordinal d. gender – nominal |
a. CORRECT ANSWER - 0o is not a true zero (i.e., the absence of temperature) – this is an interval scale
b. equal interval but no zero c. class standing = class rank d. two categories |
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Descriptive statistics is to inferential statistics as ____________ is to _____________.
a. Type I error; Type II error b. generalizing; summarizing c. sample; population d. mean; standard deviation |
a. these are the two kinds of errors that can be made when doing an inferential analysis
b. the reverse is true c. CORRECT ANSWER – descriptive statistics summarize sample data; inferential statistics try to generalize to the broader population d. these are both descriptive statistics |
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Which of the following is true about a stem and leaf display?
a. it can only be created for single data sets b. it enables the reader to examine all the exact values of the data c. it cannot be used unless there is a wide range of scores in the distribution d. it is the same as a grouped frequency distribution |
a. two data sets can be compared with a stem and leaf display
b. CORRECT ANSWER – and this is its advantage over a grouped frequency distribution c. see page 131 for an example of a stem and leaf with a narrow range of scores d. it conveys more information than a grouped frequency distribution (i.e., exact scores can be determined |
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Suppose you learn that the IQs of the six professors in your psychology department are as follows: 89, 154, 93, 83, 90, and 79. If someone asks, “What’s the overall level of intelligence in the department?” what should you calculate?
a. the median b. the mode c. the mean d. the range |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – the extreme score would produce a mean that distorted the true picture
b. no score is repeated, so the mode is not relevant c. not with the extreme score d. the question calls for a measure of central tendency, but the range is a measure of variability |
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11. There is an example in the chapter of a golf pro with two classes, one at 8:00 and one at 9:00. For the 8:00 group, the typical 9-hole scores were 50, 52, 58, 46, and 54. For the 9:00 group, these scores were 36, 62, 50, 72, 40. What was the point of the example?
a. it showed that when describing data, you should report both the mean and the median b. it showed that when describing data, you should report both the mean and the standard deviation c. it showed that one inferential statistics are more crucial than descriptive statistics d. it showed that Type I errors are more important than Type II errors |
a. not relevant here
b. CORRECT ANSWER – the means are the same for both groups, but there is much more variability in the second group c. both descriptive and inferential statistics are important d. both types of errors are important |
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Suppose you want to display the results of a survey on student shyness visually? Assume that shyness scores range from 10 to 200. What should you do?
a. create a simple frequency distribution b. group the data and create a grouped histogram (e.g., one bar for those scoring between 10 and 30) c. construct a normal curve of the data d. build a stem and leaf display |
a. the range of scores is so big the distribution would not look good
b. this could work, but unlike the stem and leaf display, the grouped histogram would not allow you to identify the actual scores c. the normal curve is a theoretical curve – you want a picture of actual (empirical) data d. CORRECT ANSWER – the display is good when there is a wide range of scores and it still enables you to identify each score precisely |
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In a study examining gender differences in “sense of direction,” which outcome would be a Type I error?
a. in the population, males are better, but your study failed to find a gender difference b. in the population, no real difference occurs, but the males in your study performed significantly (p<.05) worse than the females c. you fail to reject the null hypothesis, but you should have done so d. you reject the null hypothesis, when in fact a true difference exists |
a. this is a concrete example of a Type II error
b. CORRECT ANSWER – you think there is a difference, but there really isn’t c. this is a more abstract description of a Type II error d. this isn’t an error at all – in fact, it is the ideal outcome |
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Which of the following is true about effect size?
a. effect size analysis answers the question, “can we reject the null hypothesis?” b. as effect size increases, power decreases c. effect size is seldom used any more—confidence intervals are more likely to be used d. effect size analysis enables comparisons among a variety of different studies |
a. this question is answered by hypothesis testing; effect size answers the question: “how large is the influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable?”
b. the opposite is true c. both effect and confidence intervals are frequently used d. CORRECT ANSWER – and the process is called meta-analysis |
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Power
a. will increase with increases in sample size, all else being equal b. is the same as a probably of rejecting the null hypothesis c. might be high, but if so, the chances of making a Type II error will also be high d. is inversely related to effect size |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – large sample increase the chances of finding true effects
b. power is the probably of rejecting the null hypothesis when the null hypothesis is really false (i.e., the chances of finding a true effect) c. if power of high, the chances of a Type II error are low d. is directly related to effect size—higher effect size, more power (all else being equal) |
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One of the defining features of any experiment is the careful attempt to control ________ variables
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confounding
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Age, gender, and socioeconomic class are all examples of _________ variables.
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subject
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Concern over _________ validity has led memory researchers to investigate such things as the reasons why we forget our keys and our ability to recognize people from old high school yearbooks.
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ecological
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A manipulated independent variable is called a(n) _________ variable when the two groups in the study are told to use different rehearsal strategies when memorizing a list of words.
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instruction
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Although he normally shoots in the high 80s or low 90s for 18 holes, Jim manages to shoot a 78. Because he knows about the phenomenon of _________, he won’t be surprised if his next round is in the mid-80s.
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regression toward the mean
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________ is a threat to internal validity that comes about because the effects of some significant event occurring between pretest and posttest.
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history
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The ___________ validity of a study will be low if the study includes a confounding factor.
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internal
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The ___________ validity of a study will be called into question if the researcher completes a t test when a different type of test should have been chosen.
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statistical
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a behavior being measured
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dependent variable
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task too easy for subjects in all groups
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ceiling effect
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participants don’t return for the posttest
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attrition
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developmental changes from pre- to posttest
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maturation
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when extraneous variable is left uncontrolled
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confound
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already-existing attribute of participant
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subject variable
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participants in two groups not equal at outset (effect)
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subject selection effect
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measuring tool changes from pre- to posttest
|
instrumentation
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experimental treatment withheld
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control
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generalizes to other situations
|
external validity
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In an experiment studying the effect of X1 and X2 on Y,
a. there will be two dependent variables b. X1 is an independent variable and X2 is an extraneous variable that needs to be controlled c. Y will be some measure of behavior d. not enough information to tell which is the IV and which is the DV |
a. X1 and X2 are independent variables, not dependent variables
b. the “effect of X on Y” formulation says nothing about extraneous variables c. CORRECT ANSWER - Y is the dependent variable d. there is plenty of information |
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Which of the following is true about Woodworth’s so-called “Columbia bible?”
a. it was the first to distinguish between subject and manipulated independent variables b. it created the scales of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio) c. it made a clear distinction between experimental and correlational research d. it was the first to distinguish between internal and external validity |
a. it didn’t mention the distinction, and most of its contents involved what we would today call manipulated independent variables
b. this actually happened at about the same time (1930s) but Woodworth didn’t do it c. CORRECT ANSWER – and he implied that correlational had second-class status d. this happened much later |
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All experiments in psychology will include
a. attempts to control extraneous variables b. at least one subject variable c. a control group d. at least two dependent variables |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – confounding is problem to be avoided in all experiments
b. subject variables may or may not be present c. all experiments have controls, but not necessarily a control group d. many studies (if not most) have just a single dependent variable |
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In a study about the ways in which anxiety can influence people’s ability to solve problems efficiently, an experimenter identifies two groups of people – some are characteristically anxious while others are more relaxed types of people. Both groups are given several problems to solve. Which of the following is true?
a. anxiety in this case is a situational variable b. problem solving is a manipulated independent variable c. the description of the outcome will not be likely to mention the term “cause” d. because they are told to solve problems, the independent variable here is an instructional variable |
a. anxiety is a subject variable in this example
b. problem solving is the dependent variable c. CORRECT ANSWER – because a subject variable is involved the researcher will be cautious in drawing conclusions, saying only that the two groups performed differently d. an instructional variable exists when different groups are given different instructions |
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In a study designed to improve adherence to an exercise program, a researcher compares males and females who either (a) enter a program that rewards them concretely for attending sessions, (b) enter a program that tries to make them feel guilty for not attending sessions, or (c) enter a control group that does not have a specific program. Which of the following is true?
a. there are three different groups of participants in this study b. the study includes both a manipulated variable and a subject variable c. there are two dependent variables in the study d. both variables being tested are subject variables |
a. there are three different groups of males and three groups of females – six groups in all
b. CORRECT ANSWER – program type is manipulated; gender is a subject variable c. there is no information about dependent variables mentioned d. only gender is a subject variable in the study |
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When a confounding factor exists in an experiment,
a. it has more of an effect in external validity than internal validity b. it means there will be at least two different explanations for the results of the study c. it means a subject variable has been used instead of a manipulated variable d. it means the experimenter has failed to include a control group |
a. the opposite is true
b. CORRECT ANSWER – the outcome could be due to the IV, the confound, or some combination of the two c. whether a subject or a manipulated variable has been used has, by itself, no relevance for confounding d. confounding is indeed a failure to control some extraneous factor, but it is possible to maintain control without necessarily including a control group |
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Research in psychology is sometimes criticized because the findings are based on studies using subjects from a single cultural group. This is a criticism of
a. statistical conclusion validity b. ecological validity c. external validity d. internal validity |
a. this has to do with whether that statistical analyses were chosen and completed properly
b. this is a form external validity, but it refers to whether the results are relevant for those situations that involve everyday living c. CORRECT ANSWER – the criticism concerns whether the results generalize to “other populations” d. this concerns whether there has been a failure to control extraneous variables |
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In a study of the effects of frustration on aggression, a researcher uses questionable operational definitions of both terms. What effect will this have on the validity of the study?
a. it will raise questions about construct validity b. it will reduce the external validity of a study, but not affect construct validity c. it will inevitably introduce a confound into the study d. it will produce a floor effect |
a. CORRECT ANSWER - it will be difficult to learn anything about frustration and aggression from this study
b. this study probably will lack external validity, but it will also fail the construct validity criterion c. even with bad operational definitions of terms, it still could be confound-free d. a floor effect occurs when scores are so low in all conditions that the effect of an IV cannot be detected |
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A program is developed to help males cope with stress. Between the pretest and posttest all the males retire. Stress is lower on the posttest than on the pretest. The program might have reduced stress, but another likely explanation is possible. Which of the following “threats” to internal validity provide the most likely alternative explanation?
a.instrumentation b. regression c. maturation d. history |
a. there’s no reason to assume that the measures will change between pre- and
posttesting b. there is no indication of extreme scores on the pretest, although it’s possible that the only people who signed up were highly stressed c. it’s unlikely that maturational changes will occur in 6 months for adults d. CORRECT ANSWER – retirement is a big event that might reduce stress by itself |
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Which of the following is true about research participant pools?
a. since the 1992 revision of the APA ethics code, they are no longer allowed b. students should be aware of their existence when they sign up for the course c. if the research participation takes 20 minutes, the alternative activity, for those who don’t want to be participants, must also take exactly 20 minutes d. students don’t need to be told about alternatives to participation unless they ask about them specifically |
a. they are no allowed, but must follow specific guidelines
b. CORRECT ANSWER – notification should be made part of the course registration process c. the alternative activity should provide an equivalent experience, but doesn’t have to match participation minute for minute d. they must be told of alternatives to participation right from the start, in order to make an informed choice |
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In a program designed to improve self-esteem, the researcher worries that the items on the pretest might sensitize participants to the goals of the program and this pretest knowledge by itself might influence the outcome. This threat to internal validity is called
a. testing b. instrumentation c. history d. a selection effect |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – the pretest could inform subjects in such a way as to affect the posttest
b. this is a problem when the measuring instrument itself changes in some manner from pretest to posttest, so that the tests aren’t equivalent c. there doesn’t seem to be a relevant event occurring between pretest and posttest d. no indication that subject selection will produce nonequivalent groups here (in fact, it looks like there is just a single group) |
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In Joseph Brady’s famous study on ”executive” monkeys, which of the following was true?
a. the monkeys kept dying, so attrition made it impossible to draw firm conclusions b. by putting easily conditioned monkeys in the executive group, he introduced a subject selection confound c. by the end of the study, stress levels were reduced in the executive monkeys, but the result was probably a regression effect d. he compared two different types of monkeys (a subject variable) when he should have attempted a manipulated variable |
a. all the monkeys died who started the study ended it as well
b. CORRECT ANSWER - the easily conditioned happened to be more ulcer-prone c. stress levels were quite high in the executive monkeys, as evidenced by their ulcers d. actually, his study amounted to one using a subject variable (level of emotionality in the two groups), but he intended a manipulated variable |
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A scientists wishes to determine whether a new drug will slow down the aging process. Following Mill’s method of Agreement, the scientist will search for
a. people who live to an old age even without the drug b. people living longer who take the drug c. people dying young who take the drug d. people dying young who do not take the drug |
a. this outcome would tend to falsify the theory of the drug being the cause of a long life
b. CORRECT ANSWER – in this case the drug would be sufficient for its effect, a longer life c. this outcome is the opposite of what the drug is supposed to do d. this is Mill’s method Difference |
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researcher is interested in the effect of marijuana dosage on memory. In this study
a. dosage level is confounded with memory b. the independent variable will be a subject variable c. there does not appear to be a dependent variable d. the independent variable is dosage level |
a. there is not enough information here to determine whether confounded occurred or not
b. the independent variable is a manipulated variable (dosage level) c. the dependent variable will be some score on a memory test d. CORRECT ANSWER – the experimenter is systematically manipulating dosage level |
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A study is said to have ecological validity when
a. it uses participants other than college students b. both internal and external validity are present c. it concerns everyday activities d. the proper statistical analyses have been completed |
a. using college students right reduce external validity, but it doesn’t necessarily affect ecological validity
b. ecological validity does not relate to internal validity c. CORRECT ANSWER -- it concerns research investigating everyday behaviors d. this applies to statistical conclusion validity |
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In a taste test, Joan is asked to evaluate diet drinks in the following order: Diet Coke, Diet Pepsi, Diet Pepsi, Diet Coke. The researcher is using the method of _____________ counterbalancing.
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reverse
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Concern over __________ effects might cause a developmental psychologist to use a longitudinal design instead of a cross-sectional design.
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cohort
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Random assignment and matching are two procedures used for the purpose of trying to create ____________.
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equivalent groups
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Although this does not appear to be what really happened at Western Electric, the concept of the _________ effect has come to mean that participant behaviors can be influenced by the mere fact that they know they are in an experiment.
|
Hawthorne
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____________ procedures are often used in research to avoid experimenter bias; these procedures also reduce participant bias.
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protocol
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Using the technique of ____________, an experimenter presenting 4 different of words to participants used 24 different sequences.
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counterbalancing
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Fatigue and boredom are examples of order effects that are known as ___________ effects.
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progressive
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Any aspect of a procedure that gives away the true research hypothesis is called a ___________________.
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demand characteristic
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controlled by automating procedures
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experimenter bias
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form of partial counterbalancing
|
Latin square
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Terman’s is the classic example
|
longitudinal study
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tries to support experimenter’s hypothesis
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good subject effect
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use when extraneous factor correlates with DV
|
matching
|
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alternative to reverse counterbalancing
|
block randomization
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between-subjects design
|
cross-sectional study
|
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if present, counterbalancing might fail
|
asymmetric transfer
|
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works best with large N
|
random assignment
|
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12345 54321
|
reverse counterbalancing
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Compared with between-subjects designs, within-subjects designs
a. require the testing of a greater number of participants b. are more likely to require matching c. are the only designs for which a block randomization procedure can be used d. must solve the problem of sequence effects |
a. within-subjects designs require fewer participants
b. matching is a procedure for creating equivalent groups in between-subjects designs c. block randomization procedure is indeed a counterbalancing option, but it can also be used in between-subjects designs as a means of accomplishing random assignment d. CORRECT ANSWER – and these effects are dealt with through the various forms of counterbalancing |
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In a between-subjects design, if there is a difference in performance found between the two groups, that difference could be due to any of the following factors except
a. the sequence in which the groups were tested b. chance c. the participants in one group are just better than those in the other group d. the independent variable had its predicted effect |
a. CORRECT ANSWER - unless it introduces some systematic confound, this shouldn’t matter; sequence is the problem for within-subjects designs, not between-subjects designs
b. this is always a possibility, even though it might be a remote one (i.e., <.05) c. this is possible, although one would hope that random assignment would have created equivalent groups d. this of course is the desired outcome |
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As a means of creating equivalent groups, when is random assignment preferred over matching?
a. when large N is available b. any time the researcher suspects that some extraneous variable might correlate with the dependent variable c. whenever participants are only going to be tested once per condition rather than twice per condition d. none of the above – matching is always preferred if the researcher has the time to do it |
a. CORRECT ANSWER - unless there are overwhelming indications that matching should be used, large N makes it almost certain that random assignment will create
equivalent groups b. if this happens, then matching is preferred c. both these situation occur only in within-subjects designs d. matching should only be used when there is a strong suspicion that some factor correlates with the DV and that factor can be measured |
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In order to accomplish random assignment and insure that an equal number of participants are tested in each of the groups, the researcher would be well advised to use
a. a Latin square b. block randomization c. random selection d. a manipulation check |
a. this is a means of counterbalancing in within-subjects designs
b. CORRECT ANSWER - each “block” contains a randomized sequence of the different conditions being tested c. random selection has to do with how participants are initially selected for a study, not how they are assigned to groups d. this is a procedure done to insure the independent variable is working properly and to check for participant bias |
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Which of the following is true about counterbalancing?
a. if participants are to be tested just once per condition, reverse counterbalancing is the ideal option b. it works better for carryover effects that for progressive effects c. in between-subjects designs, it is used to insure that each condition has been tested once, before any condition is tested a second time d. if there are six different levels of the independent variable, partial counterbalancing is preferred over complete counterbalancing |
a. reverse counterbalancing is an option when participants are tested more than once per condition
b. the opposite is true c. it isn’t used in between-subjects designs d. CORRECT ANSWER – complete counterbalancing in this case would require 720 different sequences (6!); partial counterbalancing (e.g., Latin square) would be more practical |
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In some within-subjects perception experiments, participants are tested many times per condition. Over the course of 45 minutes in such an experiment, they might become bored. This tendency is known as
a. a progressive effect b. a demand characteristic c. a Hawthorne effect d. a carryover effect |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – the boredom “progressively” builds during the session
b. this is some aspect of the study that gives away the true hypothesis c. this is when behavior is influenced simply by the knowledge that one is in an experiment d. this is another type of sequence effect |
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Which of the following is true about asymmetric transfer?
a. if strongly suspected, it might be better to switch to a between-subjects design b. more likely with progressive effects than with carryover effects c. requires complete counterbalancing; partial won’t due d. solved with a double blind procedure |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – because in this case, counterbalancing might not solve the problem
b. the opposite is true c. both forms of counterbalancing might fail if asymmetric transfer exists d. useful in avoiding experimenter bias; irrelevant here |
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In the Reynolds study of expert chess players, 15 different persons each evaluated six different chessboards. What form of counterbalancing was used?
a. complete b. reverse c. partial d. Latin square |
a. six boards would require 720 different sequences (6!) and he only had 15 participants
b. each person was tested just once, not more than once c. CORRECT ANSWER – he used a random sample of the 720 possible sequences d. this would mean a 6x6 square and he would have needed either six participants or some multiple of six (to insure an equal number of participants per row of the square) |
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Which of the following is true about the case study by Carello, in which students estimated the lengths of dowels by listening to them hit the floor.
a. she used hearing ability as a matching variable b. she used block randomization to determine the sequence of presenting the various dowel lengths c. each dowel length was tested just once and complete counterbalancing was used d. the length of the dowel to be dropped was determined by a Latin square |
a. this was a within-subjects design
b. CORRECT ANSWER – each dowels length was tested one time, in random sequence, before any of the dowel lengths were tested for a second time c. each dowel length was tested several times d. a Latin square was not used in this study |
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________ effects sometimes make it difficult for developmental psychologists to interpret the results of cross-sectional studies.
a. Cohort b. Sequence c. Attrition d. Good subject |
a. CORRECT ANSWER - this is especially true if the different groups are far apart in age (e.g., 10 years)
b. this is a problem for within-subjects designs and a cross-sectional design is a between-subjects design c. this is a problem for developmental psychologists using longitudinal designs d. this could be a problem in any kind of designs, not just a cross-sectional study |
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One of the reasons for using deception in research is to
a. eliminate experimenter bias b. reduce the likelihood of demand characteristics c. avoid evaluation apprehension d. eliminate the so-called Hawthorne effect |
a. the experimenter would still know the hypothesis and bias could still occur
b. CORRECT ANSWER – deception reduces the chance of there being cues present in the procedure that give away the true purpose c. regardless of whether deception is used, some participants will experience this anyway d. participants will still know they are in an experiment and that knowledge might affect them in some way |
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In a study on the effects of crowding on problem solving, some participants were interrupted in the middle of the procedure and asked a series of questions to determine if the crowding conditions were stressful for them. At that point their participation ended. What was the purpose of the interruption?
a. it was a manipulation check b. it was designed to reduce participant bias c. it was designed to eliminate those playing the role of “good subject” d. it was designed to see if the interruption would reduce the number of problems solved |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – the researchers were probably expecting problem solving ability to decline when it was crowded, presumably because participants would feel stressed in the crowding room; it’s a good idea to check and see if the small room indeed produced feelings of stress it was a manipulation check
b. procedures to reduce participant bias (e.g., deception) occur for participants who complete the whole procedure and have their data included in the final analysis c. this problem is hard to avoid, and a manipulation check won’t do the job d. these participants left the experiment after the manipulation check; there wouldn’t be any data for them |
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In the research example about whether caffeine would improve memory for older adults, all of the following were used except?
a. counterbalancing b. a double blind procedure c. a within-subjects design d. a manipulation check |
a. yes—some seniors were tested in the morning and then in the afternoon, and others in the reverse sequence
b. yes—this was in effect c. CORRECT ANSWER – the design was between-subjects (participants randomly assigned to caffeine or no caffeine groups d. yes—participants asked to guess whether they were drinking caffeine or decaf |
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Experimenter expectancy effects
a. have been found in research with human participants but not in animal research b. can be reduced by automating the procedure as much as possible c. won’t occur as long as participants are unaware of the hypothesis being tested d. have never been replicated after Rosenthal’s research, so they probably aren’t a real problem |
a. have been found in both types of research
b. CORRECT ANSWER – this reduces the chances that the experimenter will act in a way to influence the result c. experimenter bias can be controlled with a double blind, but this is a single blind d. although Rosenthal’s research has been criticized, other studies have found experimenter effects |
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Which of the following is true about block randomization?
a. it is used as a procedure to accomplish matching b. it is another term for a Latin square c. in a between-subjects study, it can be used to insure equal numbers of participants per group d. in a within-subjects study, it is the name of the procedure used to accomplish complete counterbalancing |
a. it has nothing to do with matching
b. it can involve counterbalancing, but it is not a Latin square c. CORRECT ANSWER – it accomplishes this by placing a participant in each condition before placing any participants in a condition for a second time d. in a within-subjects study, it is used when testing participants more than once per condition |
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If a graph includes points connected by straight lines, rather than a series of bars, then the independent variable on the X-axis is most likely to be a ___________ variable.
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continuous
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If a study has just one independent variable, adding more than two levels provides the opportunity to discover _________ effects.
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nonlinear
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In a study comparing two kinds of intellectual puzzles that differ in their level of complexity, the researcher worries that the IQ levels of the participants might be correlated with the dependent variable. In the case, it would be wise to use a _____________ design.
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matched
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A ___________ control group is especially likely to be found in research evaluating the effectiveness of some new type of therapy.
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waiting list
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A single factor experiment that uses a subject variable is referred to as a _____________ design.
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nonequivalent
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When the behavior of a participant in the experimental group affects what happens to a participant in the control group, the study is using a ________ control group.
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yoked
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Studies with two levels of a repeated-measures independent variable would be statistically analyzed by using a t test for _________________.
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dependent groups
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Random assignment of participants to two groups is the defining feature of the _____________ design.
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independent groups
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analysis for single-factor, two level design
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t test, independent groups
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treatment depends on experimental group
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yoked control group
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whenever a subject variable is used
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nonequivalent groups design
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within-subjects design
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repeated-measures design
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allows for a line graph
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continuous variable
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participants eventually get treatment
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waiting list control group
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Ebbinghaus forgetting curve for example
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nonlinear effect
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gender for example
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discrete variable
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analysis for multilevel design
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ANOVA
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often used to evaluate drug/alcohol effects
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placebo control group
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How does an independent groups design (IGD) differ from a nonequivalent groups design (NGD)?
a. IGD has two levels of the independent variable, NGD is a multilevel design b. IGD can use matching; matching cannot be used in NGD c. because an IGD can use repeated measures, fewer participants are needed for this design than for an NGD d. subject variables will be found in NGD but not in IGD |
a. both types of designs can be either two-level or multilevel
b. a matched group design is a different type of design from both IGD and NGD; with NGD however, researchers often try to equate the groups as much as possible on a number of variables c. an IGD does not use repeated measures d. CORRECT ANSWER – the presence of subject variables defines the NGD |
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The matched groups study by Blagrove attempted to see if sleep deprivation could make people more susceptible to leading questions. What was the matching variable?
a. the amount of sleep typically experienced by participants b. whether or not participants experienced sleep deprivation c. the verbal abilities of the participants d. whether or not participants had experienced being in a real courtroom, being asked leading questions by lawyers |
a. CORRECT ANSWER –groups were matched in terms of “self-reported habitual sleep duration”
b. this was the independent variable c. this might possibly have influenced the results, but Blagrove did not use it for matching d. not especially relevant |
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Which of the following case studies used a repeated-measures design?
a. the Lee and Aronson study of the effects of a moving room on children’s balance b. the Kasser and Sheldon study of the effects of insecurity on materialist thinking c. the Merickle and Skanes study that used placebos and waiting lists to evaluate subliminal self-help tapes d. the McDonald and Flanagan study of TBI (traumatic brain injury) |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – the children experienced the room moving forward and backward
b. this was an independent groups study c. these types of controls (placebo, waiting list) imply the existence of different groups d. this was a nonequivalent groups design |
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Which of the following is true about outliers?
a. they refer to any data points more than two standard deviations removed from the mean b. guidelines for removing them should be made clear before the study begins c. because they are rare, they have little effect on data and can usually be ignored d. they refer to participants who fail to follow the instructions |
a. a more likely criterion is 4-5 standard deviations away from the mean
b. CORRECT ANSWER – it is dangerous to remove data “after the fact” (might suggest discarding data that fail to support the hypothesis, which is fraud c. they can have a large and distorting effect on mean scores d. this is one scenario that can produce an outlier score, but outliers can occur for a number of reasons |
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Stroop completed three experiments, the second one demonstrating his famous “Stroop effect.” Which of the following was true about that study?
a. he used nonequivalent groups design b. he used a multilevel as opposed to a two-level design c. he used a repeated-measures design d. he presented the conditions in different sequences using a Latin square |
a. participants completed both the Stroop condition and the control condition
b. he used a two-level design c. CORRECT ANSWER d. he used a reverse counterbalancing procedure |
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A researcher wishes to see if using imagery can improve memory. Participants in an experimental group are trained to use imagery, and then given a 30-item list of words to learn. Words are presented one at a time and then recalled, so people in this group vary in terms of how many times they have to study the list before they know it. Control group participants will just repeat the words to themselves as the words are presented. What would be the best type of control group to use here?
a. a placebo control group b. a yoked control group c. a waiting list control group d. none of the above – a simple control group that is shown the words once will be fine |
a. this type of group is best used in situations in which you want participants to think they are experiencing some effect (e.g., alcohol) but really aren’t
b. CORRECT ANSWER – if two experimental group participants use, say, 6 and 8 trials to learn the list, there ought to be two control group participants who study the list (without imagery) for 6 and 8 trials c. this type of group is best used in situations in which you want participants to similar to the people who are getting treatment d. those in the experimental group are studying the lists varying number of times; that needs to be true of those in the control group also |
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The famous Ebbinghaus study that investigated the rate of forgetting over time is an example of which of the following methodological points?
a. using multiple t tests increases the chances of making a Type I error b. adding levels of an independent variable allows for the discovery of a nonlinear effect c. adding different groups in a multilevel strategy allows alternative hypotheses to be ruled out d. bar graphs are called for when the dependent variable is a discrete variable |
a. actually, the Ebbinghaus studies were completed before t tests were invented
b. CORRECT ANSWER –and a nonlinear effect is just what Ebbinghaus found c. this is another reason for adding levels, but not the reason used by Ebbinghaus d. this is true, but Ebbinghaus used a continuous variable (time between learning a list and relearning it |
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Concerning the decision about whether to use bar graphs or line graphs,
a. if the X-axis contains a discrete variable, a bar graph should be used b. if the X-axis contains a discrete variable, a line graph should be used c. if the X-axis contains a continuous variable, a bar graph must be used d. if the X-axis contains a continuous variable, a line graph must be used |
a. CORRECT ANSWER
b. a line graph implies intermediate points, which don’t exist with discrete variables c. with a continuous variable, line graphs are normally used, but a bar graph could be used d. with a continuous variable, line graphs are normally used |
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A waiting list control group is most likely to appear in a study
a. examining the effects of caffeine on steadiness b. evaluating the effects of systematic desensitization therapy on the reduction of phobias c. studying the influence of control on stress (as in the Weiss study with the rats) d. comparing males and females in their ability to not get lost |
a. this calls for a placebo control group
b. CORRECT ANSWER – waiting list controls are typically used in studies evaluating therapy; this creates two groups with similar problems c. this calls for a yoked control group d. this type of study does not have a control group per se |
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Which of the following is true about a study like the Bransford and Johnson study of the effects of context (the sketch of the man serenading the woman with a guitar) on memory?
a. the analysis would involve a t test for independent groups rather than a t test for dependent groups b. they added levels to the independent variable in order to find a nonlinear effect c. data analysis calls for a 1-way Analysis of Variance d. the data could be presented either in a table or as a line graph |
a. because it is a multilevel design, neither type of t test is appropriate
b. they added levels to rule out alternative hypotheses c. CORRECT ANSWER d. a table would be fine, but a bar graph is called for here (discrete variable on the X-axis) |
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A researcher is interested in studying the effects of alcohol on reaction time. Participants are randomly assigned to an experimental group, a placebo control group, and a straight control group. Average reaction time in the experimental group is .36 sec. Which of the following average scores for the other two groups would allow the researcher to conclude that the apparent effect of alcohol was nothing but a placebo effect?
a. the placebo group = .36 sec. and the straight control = .23 sec. b. the placebo group = .30 sec. and the straight control = .23 sec. c. the placebo group = .23 sec. and the straight control = .23 sec. d. the placebo group = .36 sec. and the straight control = .36 sec. |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – expecting alcohol yields exactly the same results as actually getting alcohol
b. this suggests both a true effect of alcohol (.36 minus .30) and a partial placebo effect (.30 minus .23) c. this indicates no placebo effect at all, but a clear effect due to alcohol d. this indicates no effect of either a placebo or the alcohol |
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Control groups are sometimes criticized on ethical grounds – in research on therapy effectiveness, for instance, it is sometimes argued that people might be denied an effective way to solve their problems by being placed in a no-treatment control group. Researchers reply in several ways. Which of the following is not one of them?
a. control groups simply aren’t used when testing the effectiveness of therapy b. control group members often get an existing therapy (rather than the experimental therapy); they aren’t denied therapy completely c. whether people would be denied a truly “effective” therapy cannot be known without completing methodologically sound (i.e., proper control groups) research d. in studies with waiting lists, the therapy is eventually available to control group members |
a. CORRECT ANSWER - waiting list control groups or groups given another form of therapy
are normally used in this kind of research, so this argument would not be made b. this argument is frequently made c. this argument is also made d. so is this one |
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When would a researcher be more likely to present data in a table rather than in a graph?
a. whenever there are two levels rather than multiple levels of the independent variable b. when the researcher wants to convey the precise values of the means c. whenever the independent variable involves a discrete variable rather than a continuous variable d. none of the above – in fact, the best strategy is to present the same data both in a table and in a graph |
a. with just two levels, the data would best be presented as a graph or perhaps just verbally, worked into a sentence in the results section of the report
b. CORRECT ANSWER – exact values usually have to be guessed at with a graph c. irrelevant – this distinction relates to the decision about whether to use a line or a bar graph d. actually, this is the one thing you should never do |
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For which of the following studies would a nonequivalent control groups design least likely to be used?
a. a study of gender differences in sense of direction b. a study comparing “morning people” with “evening people” on several cognitive tasks c. a study examining the effects of crowding on problem solving d. a study looking at age differences in music preferences |
a. subject variable used here – gender
b. subject variable used here – type of person c. CORRECT ANSWER -- crowding would probably be manipulated by randomly assigning participants to a crowded or an uncrowded room d. subject variable used here – age |
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Which of the following studies would be analyzed with a t test for dependent measures?
a. the study on sleep deprivation that used typical sleep time as a matching variable b. the study on the moving room that tipped over children c. the study showing that memory for a disjointed story is best for participants looking at an appropriate cartoon d. the study on the Mozart effect |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – this is a matched groups design
b. this was a repeated measures design c. this study had multiple levels – calls for ANOVA d. this was a repeated measures design (with multiple levels) |
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A ______ factorial design includes at least one between-subjects factor and at least one within-subjects factor.
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mixed
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In a factorial study, examining row means allows the experimenter to determine if a significant _________ occurred.
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main effect
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The defining feature of a __________ is the presence of two or more independent variables.
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factorial design
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A ________ occurs when the means for two different conditions are very close to the maximum possible score.
|
ceiling effect
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In educational research, a(n) ________ interaction is said to occur when the effectiveness of some type of instruction depends on the type of person receiving that instruction.
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ATI
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In a ________ design, one of the factors is a manipulated variable and a second factor is a subject variable.
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P x E
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A box containing cell means for each of the conditions in a factorial study is called a ____________.
|
factorial matrix
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___________ can occur in a study when participants who have completed the study confer with those about to become participants.
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leakage
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|
one within, one between
|
mixed factorial
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overall influence of one factor
|
main effect
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|
2x3, for example
|
factorial design
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most dangerous when deception involved
|
leakage
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scores too high for effect to be known
|
ceiling effect
|
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|
effect of one IV depends on the other IV
|
interaction
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|
|
legacy of Kurt Lewin
|
P x E factorial
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|
|
type of interaction in educational research
|
ATI design
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|
A 2x3x4 factorial designs has
a. at least one between-subjects factor b. nine different conditions (2 plus 3 plus 4) c. three different independent variables d. twenty-four independent variables (2 times 3 times 4) |
a. not necessarily – all could be within-subjects factors
b. there are 24 different conditions in the study (2 times 3 times 4) c. CORRECT ANSWER – the three IVs have 2, 3, and 4 levels, respectively d. there are 24 different conditions, not 24 independent variables |
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In a study examining the effects of room size (large or small) and window presence (room with a window or without a window on problem solving), a researcher finds that the room size didn’t affect performance, but people did a lot better when there was a window. That is, in this study,
a. an interaction between room size and window presence occurred b. there was a main effect for room size only c. there was a main effect for window presence only d. there were two main effects and no interaction |
a. there is no interaction here
b. no main effect for room size – it “didn’t affect performance” c. CORRECT ANSWER – whether or not there was a window (regardless of room size) made a difference in their performance d. there was only a single main effect, for window presence |
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In a 2 (gender) x 2 (type of therapy) factorial design, which of the following outcomes would be an example of an interaction?
a. males do better in therapy A; females also do better with this therapy b. therapy A works better for males, while therapy B works better for females c. therapy B works better overall, and this is true for both males and females d. females outperform males, regardless of type of therapy |
a. this describes a main effect for therapy type
b. CORRECT ANSWER – the influence of one factor (therapy) depends on whether one is referring to males or females c. this describes a main effect for therapy type d. this describes a main effect for gender |
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In a mixed design,
a. there is at least one repeated measure b. one of the variables has to be a subject variable c. the number of levels for each independent variable will be different (e.g., 2x3) d. counterbalancing will always be needed |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – al mixed designs have at least one within-subjects factor (i.e., repeated measure) and one between-subjects factor
b. true of a PxE design, but not in a mixed design c. not especially relevant d. counterbalancing might not be needed – the within-subjects factor might be “trials” |
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A study with at least one subject variable and one manipulated variable is referred to in the text as
a. a PxE factorial design b. a mixed factorial design c. a nonequivalent groups factorial design d. an independent groups factorial design |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – the “P” (person) is the subject variable and the “E” (environment) is the manipulated factor
b. this design includes at least one between-subjects factor and one within-subjects factor c. this would be true if both factors were subject variables d. independent groups requires random assignment, which is impossible when a subject variable is used |
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Suppose you have a 2x3 factorial in which one of the factors is rat gender and other is a repeated measure such as “trials in maze learning.” Suppose cell A1B1 has 30 rats in it. How many rats will be needed for this study?
a. 60 b. 90 c. 30 d. 180 |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – there will be 30 males and 30 females, each getting three trials
b. this would be true in a 2x3 mixed design if the “3” was the between-subjects factor c. this would be true in a 2x3 repeated-measures factorial d. this would be true in a 2x3 independent groups factorial design |
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Consider the Research examples that appeared in Chapter 8. Which of the following was a PxE factorial?
a. the study on the “closing time” effect b. the study of the effects of context on memory, when information were both learned and recall in a noisy or quiet environment c. the study comparing high and low self-efficacy and looming or stationary spiders d. the study comparing males and females completing math tasks |
a. this was an independent groups factorial
b. this was an independent groups factorial c. this was a mixed factorial (self-efficacy will often be a subject variable, but in this particular study it was manipulated by the experimenters) d. CORRECT ANSWER – Type A or B was the “P” variable and task difficulty was the “E” variable |
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Which of the following was true about the famous Jenkins and Dallenbach study of retroactive interference?
a. they showed that it was better to remain active between studying and recalling; falling asleep in between was a bad idea b. it was the first use of a factorial design utilizing large number of research participants in each group c. they found a main effect for retention interval but no difference for the other factor (whether or not people slept between study and recall) d. their results suggested an interaction – retention interval had a greater effect when the students remained awake than when they slept between study and recall |
a. the opposite was true – staying awake produced more interference and poorer recall
b. there were only two participants c. they found a big difference for the other factor d. CORRECT ANSWER – this was before the days of ANOVA, though, so with just two participants, conclusions about interactions cannot be made with much certainty |
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A researcher predicts that introverts will do better on a problem solving task if they do it by themselves rather than in front of an audience. Extroverts, however, are expected to do better with an audience than alone. The researcher
a. is predicting a main effect for the audience variable b. is using a mixed factorial design c. expects an interaction effect to occur d. is using two manipulated variables |
a. the audience is not expected to have an overall effect – depends of type of person
b. it’s a PxE design c. CORRECT ANSWER – whether an audience effect occurs depends on the type of person d. introvert/extrovert is a subject variable |
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A 3x3 factorial design uses five people in cell A1B1. ______ people will need to be recruited for this study if it is a independent groups factorial, ______ will be needed for a mixed factorial, and ______ will be needed for a repeated measures factorial.
a. 45; 15; 5 b. 30; 15; 5 c. 45; 30; 15 d. 45; 30; 5 |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – 9 groups and 5 per group; three different groups and 5 per group; 5 serve in all 9 cells
b. consult the examples on p. 271 of the text to see why this is wrong c. consult the examples on p. 271 of the text to see why this is wrong d. consult the examples on p. 271 of the text to see why this is wrong |
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|
In a direction-finding experiment, 90 students are asked to point to targets while being shown the direction of north; 90 more are not given a north orientation. Also, within each of the two groups, 30 rats point to nearby local targets, 30 others point to targets 50 miles away, and the remaining 30 point to targets 150 miles away. What can you say about this design?
a. both independent variables are subject factors b. it is best described as a 2x2 independent groups design c. it is best described as a 2x3 mixed design d. six different conditions are being tested |
a. both are manipulated variables
b. it’s a 2x3 c. both factors are between-subjects factors d. CORRECT ANSWER – there will be six different groups |
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|
In a type of graph called a __________, the axes represent two variables being correlated.
|
scatterplot
|
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|
In a bivariate correlation between two variables, A and B, A could be causing B or B could be causing A. This is known as the _________ problem.
|
directionality
|
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|
When trying to establish the _________ of a new IQ test, a researcher would correlate the new test’s scores with a score indicating achievement in school.
|
criterion validity
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|
The effects of third variables can be evaluated statistically through the procedure of _______________.
|
partial correlation
|
|
|
In a ____________, high scores on one variable are associated with low scores on a second variable.
|
negative correlation
|
|
|
Unlike test-retest reliability, __________ reliability can be determined by administering the test just once.
|
split-half
|
|
|
In a ___________ study, there are several predictor variables and one criterion variable.
|
multiple regression
|
|
|
On the basis of using a multivariate procedure called __________, Spearman believed that everyone possessed, to varying degrees, a general intelligence factor that he called “g.”
|
factor analysis
|
|
|
assesses directionality
|
cross-lagged panel correlation
|
|
|
amount of shared variance
|
coefficient of determination
|
|
|
used in twin studies
|
intraclass correlation
|
|
|
test measures what it’s supposed to measure
|
criterion validity
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first step in factor analysis
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correlation matrix
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lowers Pearson’s r
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restricting the range
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potential explanation for observed correlation
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third variable
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high on A goes with high on B
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positive correlation
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serves general goal of prediction
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regression analysis
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indicates low measurement error
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test-retest reliability
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Which of the following correlations would be least effective for making predications?
a. -.76 b. +.16 c. +1.00 d. -.09 |
a. this is a relatively strong negative correlation
b. this is a weak correlation, but not the weakest c. this is the best correlation for making predictions d. CORRECT ANSWER – this is the correlation closest to zero |
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Of the following examples, which would be an example of a negative correlation?
a. the relationship between depression and hours spent sleeping b. the relationship between need for achievement and GPA c. the relationship between grades in experimental psychology and grades in statistics d. the relationship between shyness and self-confidence |
a. positive – greater depression is associated with more time sleeping
b. positive – high achievement needs are likely to be associated with high achievement c. positive – similar skills involved d. CORRECT ANSWER – as shyness increases, self-confidence is likely to decrease, and vice-versa |
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Phrenologists once believed that the strength of one’s sex drive was indicated by the size of one’s cerebellum. That is, there was said to be a strong positive correlation between sex drive and cerebellum size, which led to the use of cerebellum measurements as a way to gauge sex drive. What can be said about these measurements?
a. they would be quite reliable b. they were a valid measure of sex drive c. they were neither reliable nor valid d. they illustrate a multivariate analysis, rather than a bivariate analysis |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – by measuring twice, for instance, the same basic results would pccur
b. Flourens showed that the cerebellum had nothing to do with sex, so the measure would have no validity c. they were reliable but not valid d. they illustrate a bivariate analysis (two variables – sex drive, cerebellum size) |
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Galton discovered the principle of regression to the mean when he observed that
a. tall parents had tall children and short parents had short children, showing that height was inherited, not the result of environmental influences b. parents who were much shorter than average tended to have children who were slightly taller than they were c. parents who were much taller than average tended to have children who were slightly taller than they were d. regression lines can be used for prediction purposes |
a. this may be so, but it is not related to the regression to the mean phenomenon
b. CORRECT ANSWER – these children were moving in the direction of (i.e., regressing to)the population mean for height c. these parents would have tall children, but they would be not quite as tall as the parents d. true, but not related to the regression to the mean phenomenon |
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Consider two correlations, +.50 and +.70. Which of the following is true?
a. drawing conclusions about cause an effect is safer with the +.70 than with the +.50 b. the points on the scatterplot would be closer to the regression line for the +.70 than for the +.50 c. because it is “half way to being perfect,” the directionality problem is more acute for the +.50 than for the +.70 d. they could represent the exact same study, except that the +.70 would be more likely to reflect a range restriction than the +.50 |
a. drawing conclusions about cause an effect is not safe with either
b. CORRECT ANSWER – as the correlation gets closer to +1.00, the points on the scatterplot get closer to the regression line c. directionality is just as likely to be a problem for each one d. a range restriction tends to lower the correlation, so the opposite would be true |
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According to the so-called Yerkes-Dodson Law, motor performance on difficult tasks is best if the person is only moderately aroused. Either high or low arousal produces poor performance. When examining the relationship between arousal and performance, which of the following is true?
a. Pearson’s r should not be used because this relationship violates the assumption of linearity b. this is an example of a strong positive correlation and would yield a Pearson’s r somewhere in the vicinity of +.70 c. this is an example of a strong negative correlation and would yield a Pearson’s r somewhere in the vicinity of -.70 d. because only the moderate arousal relates to good performance, there is a range restriction problem here |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – a Pearson’s r would be close to zero, a misrepresentation of the strength of this nonlinear relationship
b. this is strong relationship, but not a linear one c. this is strong relationship, but not a linear one d. there is no restriction problem here – levels of arousal from low to high are being measured |
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A researcher investigates exercise practices and emotional stability and finds a correlation of +.80 between a measure of exercise frequency and a measure of emotional stability (low score = unstable; high score = stable). Which of the following is true?
a. you can safely predict that the relationship will be a strong one for 80% of the population b. if somebody is unstable emotionally, exercise is the cure for the problem c. people who exercise a lot tend to be emotionally stable d. emotional instability can cause somebody to drop their exercise program |
a. a Pearson’s r has nothing to do with this type of percentage; it could be said, however, that
64% of the variability in both these factors is shared variance (+.80 squared) b. this implies that exercise is a cause of emotional stability, and while this could be true, this conclusion cannot be drawn from the mere presence of a correlation c. CORRECT ANSWER – this is simply a verbal description of the bivariate relationship d. this could also be true, but it’s not the correct answer for the same reason that alternative b. is incorrect (correlation does mean cause) |
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The study by Eron and his colleagues (preference for violent TV and tendencies toward aggression) illustrated several points about the interpretation of correlational research. Which of the following was true about that study?
a. they used a partial correlation procedure to show that the correlation between the preference for violent TV and the tendencies toward aggression disappeared when third variables were taken into account b. their correlations were quite low because they had a restriction of range problem c. by correlating preferences in the third grade with aggressive tendencies ten years later, they were able to eliminate the directionality problem d. they concluded that a preference for violent TV was a cause of aggression, but their study highlights the danger of saying anything about cause with a correlational study– their outcome could be the result of either the directionality problem or the third variable problem |
a. they used a partial correlation procedure to rule out the effects of third variables
b. restriction of range was not a problem for them c. CORRECT ANSWER – the aggression seen ten years later could not have been caused by the preferences ten years earlier d. they took steps to deal with both types of problems |
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To achieve criterion validity for the K•ABC test, the creators of the test
a. gave the test twice and correlated the results b. correlated K•ABC scores with scores on the California Achievement Test c. took the K•ABC data and correlated even-numbered items with odd-numbered items d. correlated the “simultaneous processing” subtest scores with the subtest scores for “sequential processing” |
a. this is test-retest reliability
b. CORRECT ANSWER - the K•ABC is the predictor variable and Achievement Test is the criterion variable c. this is split-half reliability d. this correlation should be low because the two types of abilities are supposed to be distinct |
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On what grounds could one argue that introversion is at least partly inherited from one’s parents?
a. shy parents often have shy children b. there is a higher degree of similarity in shyness for identical twins than for fraternal twins c. there is a higher degree of similarity in shyness for identical twins reared together than for identical twins reared apart d. children who are shy seldom grow up to be adults who are shy |
a. could be either heredity or environment
b. CORRECT ANSWER – assuming similar rearing conditions, the only difference between the two groups is in the degree of genetic similarity c. this wasn’t investigated in the study described in the chapter, but if it occurred, the outcome would indicate an environmental influence, not a genetic one d. this would support an environmental interpretation (actually the opposite is more likely to be true – shy children often become shy adults) |
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The procedure of combining several predictors into one, then predicting some criterion, occurs with
a. multiple regression b. partial correlation c. factor analysis d. cross-lagged panel correlation |
a. CORRECT ANSWER - multiple regression always has two or more predictor variables
b. this procedure is used to statistically control for third variables c. this is a multivariate procedure for identifying clusters of related variables d. this is a bivariate procedure for dealing with the directionality problem |
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Which of the following was true about McClelland’s famous study on the “achieving” society?
a. he predicted societal achievement by evaluating achievement themes in children’s literature b. he was able to show that high achievement needs in children caused later economic progress c. he correlated achievement scores for children and their parents d. he showed that the “TAT” (Thematic Apperception Test) had high reliability but questionable validity |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – and the achievement themes in fact predicted later economic prosperity
b. as with other correlational research, conclusions about cause would be risky here c. he correlated achievement scores for children with several measures of economic health d. this is often concluded about the TAT, but it was not part of McClelland’s research |
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A cross lagged panel technique is sometimes used to help solve the problem.
a. third variable b. regression to the mean c. negative correlation d. directionality |
a. third variables can be evaluated with a partial correlation procedure
b. this is a phenomenon that occurs in correlational research, not a technique c. negative correlations are not a problem; they simply represent inverse relationships d. CORRECT ANSWER – they accomplish this by having a clear time lag in between measurements of the two variables |
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Pearson’s r
a. can only be used with data that are measured on ratio scales b. ranges in value from 0 (no relation) to +1 (perfect relationship) c. should not be used if the relationship is nonlinear d. will produce a value that is higher than it should be if there is a range restriction |
a. it can be used with interval data that also
b. it ranges in value from -1 (perfect inverse relationship) to 0 to +1 c. CORRECT ANSWER – it should be used only with linear relationships d. the opposite is true |
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A large number of measures are taken and correlated with each other, in an attempt to see if any variables cluster together, This study is using
a. multiple regression b. partial correlation c. factor analysis d. regression analysis |
a. this procedure combines several predictor variables in order to predict some criterion
b. this is a technique for examining the influence of third variables c. CORRECT ANSWER – measures that intercorrelate suggest a common factor d. this involves predicting the value of one factor from the score on another |
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Because multiple measurements are taken over an extended period of time, interrupted time series designs allow researchers to evaluate the influence of ___________.
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trends
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Wood and Bootzin used a(n) _____________ design to evaluate the effects of an earthquake on the quantity and content of nightmares.
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nonequivalent control group
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To determine if a just-completed literacy program was effective, a program evaluation researcher completed a ____________.
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summative evaluation
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Whenever participants cannot be randomly assigned to treatment conditions, the results is a ____________ design.
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quasi-experimental
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If program participants are chosen in such a way that their average pretest scores are lower than the test scores for their population, their posttest scores might be higher. The program might have worked, but the outcome could also be the result of _________.
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regression
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An agency has to decide which of two programs to implement – they appear to be equally effective. In this case the decision would probably depend on a _____________.
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cost
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As part of a formative evaluation, program evaluation researchers often conduct a _____________.
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program audti
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Census data are most useful during the ____________ stage of program evaluation.
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needs analysis
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Content analysis of data that have already been collected for some other purpose is a common feature of __________ research.
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archival
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useful for needs analysis
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focus group
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program implemented as planned?
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program audit
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random assignment not possible
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quasi-experimental
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collected originally for another purpose
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archival data
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should we create this program?
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needs analysis
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manipulated IV plus nonequivalent groups
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nonequivalent control group design
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includes clients, staff, and program directors
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stakeholders
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evaluated in a times series study
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trend
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did the program work?
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summative evaluation
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program starts in different places at different times
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switching replication
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Applied research is to basic research as _______ is to ________.
a. only takes place in the field; only takes place in the field b. no independent variables possible; always has independent variables c. no connection with theory; strong connection with theory d. solving specific problems; acquiring knowledge |
a. some applied research occurs in labs and some basic research occurs in the field
b. independent variables are common in applied research and not all basic research manipulates independent variables (e.g., correlational research) c. both basic and applied research can be theory-based d. CORRECT ANSWER – applied research tends to be more immediately useful than basic research |
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Experiment is to quasi-experiment as _____ is to _____.
a. better at external validity; better at internal validity b. equivalent groups; nonequivalent groups c. use of subject variables; use of manipulated variables d. control group available; no control groups used |
a. if anything, the reverse might be true
b. CORRECT ANSWER – the experiment can randomly assign, the quasi-experiment cannot c. the reverse would be true d. control groups may or may not be used in both types |
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Which of the following was true about the Research example designed to evaluate the use of a “cognitive interview” for obtaining better eyewitness accounts?
a. they used an interrupted time series design with a control group b. those trained in the technique improved, but those in the control group improved by about the same amount c. it was applied research, but the results provided theoretical support for the importance of context-dependent memory d. interview accuracy seemed to improve, but the change was probably a regression effect |
a. they used nonequivalent control group design
b. those in the control group did not improve significantly c. CORRECT ANSWER – the study shows how applied research, even though it is aimed at a specific problem, can still contribute to our general knowledge about some phenomenon (memory) d. interview accuracy improved for those trained, and there was no evidence of a regression effect |
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The work of the applied psychologist Hugo Münsterberg (Box 10.1) included all of the following except
a. applying reaction time methodology to improve the “football charging time” of linemen at Stanford b. identifying factors that reduced the accuracy of eyewitness memory c. developing and evaluating techniques for employee selection d. arguing that males were better suited for juries than females |
a. CORRECT ANSWER - this example of applied research was done by Walter Miles
and the apparatus is pictured in Figure 10.2 b. this was part of Münsterberg’s contribution to forensic psychology c. this was part of Münsterberg’s contribution to industrial psychology d. this was a controversial part of Münsterberg’s contribution to forensic psychology |
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First-year students who volunteer for a 6-month program on time management are compared with a similar group (also freshmen) who don’t volunteer for the program. Their time management skills are measured before and after the program begins for the first group, using a standardized test that yields scores from 1-100 (100 = ideal time management skills). On a pretest, the volunteers score an average of 20; their posttest mean is 35. The average control group pretest score is 28 and their posttest score is 43. Which of the following is true?
a. the changes for both groups must have been due to history b. the program clearly worked (assuming 35 is significantly higher than 20) c. there appears to be a selection x maturation problem here d. there is no evidence for program effectiveness |
a. maturation is a much more likely determinant of the increase in both groups (as freshmen gain experience in college, their time management skills improve)
b. the fact that the control group increased by the same amount calls this conclusion into question c. this could only occur if one group improved (through maturation) while the other group didn’t improve (but both improved) d. CORRECT ANSWER- and this is why it’s nice to have a control group |
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With each number representing a percentage of drivers using cell phones during the one-week measurement intervals, which of the following sets of data would lead to this conclusion: The law reduced cell phone use, but only temporarily.
a. 40, 35, 30, 35, 40, 35 (law goes into effect) 30, 35, 40, 35, 30, 35 b. 40, 35, 40, 35, 40, 40 (law goes into effect) 35, 30, 25, 25, 20, 25 c. 35, 35, 40, 35, 30, 25 (law goes into effect) 20, 15, 10, 10, 10, 10 d. 40, 40, 35, 35, 40, 35 (law goes into effect) 25, 20, 20, 30, 40, 40 |
a. this is a cyclical trend
b. even though the percentages afterwards are relatively high, this outcome still suggests that the law produced a reliable drop in cell phone use c. this suggests a general trend toward decreased cell phone use that began four months before the law went into effect d. CORRECT ANSWER – there is an initial decline, but then cell phone use begins to increase |
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Nonequivalent control groups usually include pretests, but this is not necessarily the case. Which of the following studies did not include any pretesting and why?
a. the study of the effects of the earthquake on dreams; doing a pretest would have required an accurate earthquake prediction b. the study on coaches effectiveness training; doing a pretest would have given away the purpose of the study c. the Connecticut speeding study; a pretest wasn’t possible because it was a field study d. the study evaluating the effectiveness of Head Start; doing a pretest would have caused a regression problem |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – students in earthquake and no earthquake locations were the nonequivalent groups; pretest measures would have required knowing when the earthquake was going to occur
b. a pretest of self esteem was used in this study c. this was a time series, not a nonequivalent control group design d. forcing nonequivalent groups to be equal by matching on a pretest can cause a regression effect |
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Consulting with “key informants” is most likely to occur during which type of program evaluation?
a. cost analysis b. summative analysis c. formative analysis d. needs analysis |
a. true only if your key informant happens to be a cost accountant
b. a statistician or research design expert might be used as a consultant here c. someone with expertise in qualitative analysis might be useful as a consultant here d. CORRECT ANSWER – knowledgeable community leaders often have a strong sense of what types of programs might be needed in a community |
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What is the advantage of doing a formative evaluation?
a. it enables the agency to decide whether or not to implement the program b. it allows program changes to be made before it is too late c. it allows the researcher to complete an experimental study instead of a quasi-experimental study d. it allows for a final “formed” evaluation of the success or failure of the program |
a. this happens in a needs analysis
b. CORRECT ANSWER – this would be a potential benefit of doing the program monitoring that happens with a formative evaluation c. it is highly unlikely that a formative evaluation will be using the experimental method d. this happens in a summative evaluation |
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A cost-effectiveness analysis answers which of the following questions?
a. is this program running as it was designed to run? b. did the program produce significant results? c. should we continue with program A or program B? d. does the community desire this program? |
a. this is a formative evaluation question
b. this is a formative summative question c. CORRECT ANSWER – two programs that are about equal in effectiveness might differ in cost, and cost would determine which program is chosen d. this is a needs analysis question |
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Sometimes the result of a program evaluation study is a “failure to reject H0.” Which of the following true about this outcome?
a. the outcome tells you that the program being tested was a failure b. the outcome doesn’t allow you to conclude anything about the program c. the outcome can provide useful information for decisions about program effectiveness d. the outcome is sure to be a Type I error |
a. not necessarily - the outcome might tell you that a new program just as effective as a program given to the control group
b. the conclusion would have to be tentative, but it could be a potentially important result (as in the feedback for alternative c.) c. CORRECT ANSWER – it might indicate that an expensive new program doesn’t work any better than the traditional program (the result would need replication though) d. a Type I error can only occur when H0 is rejected |
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Which of the following characterized the “hospital room with a view” study?
a. it was an example of a time series with switching replications, examining trends in hospital care b. it showed that even with archival research, it is possible to randomly assign and thereby complete a true experiment c. it showed that independent variables could be manipulated in archival research d. it showed that in archival research, you have to take what you get – there is no way to control extraneous factors |
a. it was an archival research study
b. groups were formed, and attempts were made to reduce the nonequivalence, but random assignment was not possible in this study c. CORRECT ANSWER – in the study it was possible to compare patients with a window with those not having a window d. the data of archival research can be limited, but some control is possible (e.g., only considering certain types of medical cases, only using patients within a certain age range |
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Which of the following accurately characterizes an interrupted time series with switching replications?
a. the program is introduced in two separate places and different points in time b. there is one group and the design switches from experimental treatment to control treatment c. it is simply that a control group has been added to a normal time series design d. it involves measuring more than one dependent variable, when the program is expected to affect just one of the DVs |
Which of the following accurately characterizes an interrupted time series with switching replications?
a. CORRECT ANSWER -- the study essentially is replicated b. this design has a minimum of two groups c. a control group can always be added, but doing so does not define the design as an interrupted time series with switching replications d. this is a different variation on the basic theme, one used in the California three strikes study |
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Which of the following is a weakness of archival research?
a. it is not possible to control extraneous variables b. reactivity can have a significant impact c. it is qualitative research and, as a result, firm statistical conclusions cannot be made d. it can be prone to experimenter bias |
a. random assignment is out, but it is quite possible to control some extraneous variables (as in the hospital research example)
b. because the data have already been collected for some other purpose, reactivity is not a factor c. it is not usually qualitative research d. CORRECT ANSWER – bias can potentially influence which data will be used |
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A small town decides to outlaw the use of cell phones while people are driving. Before putting the law into effect, officials measure the amount of cell phone use among drivers by placing observers at a busy intersection and recording the percentage of drivers using phones. They do this over 6 consecutive one-week intervals, each week being the middle week of a month (i.e., six months of pretesting). Right after the law is passed, officials repeat the observational study for another six months.
Which of the following is true about the design of this study? a. it is a basic interrupted time series design b. it is an example of a nonequivalent control group design c. without a control group, there is no way to evaluate trends with this design d. by taking multiple observations, this qualifies as a design with switching replications |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – this is an interrupted time series without a control group
b. there’s no control group and there are multiple measuring points before and after the program goes into effect c. the reason for the multiple measuring points before and after the program is to enable the evaluate of a trend without necessarily using a control group d. multiple observations make it a time series, duplicating the program in another place at another time constitutes “switching replications” |
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In a Skinnerian experimental analysis of behavior, the only valuable dependent variable is ____________.
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rate of response
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In terms of its ability to rule out alternative explanations for a behavior change, the _______ design is the weakest of the single-subject designs.
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A-B
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The first step in any applied behavior analysis of to establish a __________ level of responding.
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baseline
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The single-subject procedures of A-B-A and A-B-A-B are both examples of ___________ designs.
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withdrawal
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The ___________ design is based on the operant procedure called shaping.
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changing criterion
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A researcher wishes to examine the effects of a reinforcement program on a child’s behavior, as it occurs in three different environments. A _____________ design should be used to evaluation the program.
|
multiple baseline
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The research example that tried to alter the study behavior of ADHD students used a __________ design.
|
ABAB
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Luria’s examination of the mind of the mnemonic (“S.”) is an example if a ___________.
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case study
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value of program recognized by participants?
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social validity
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stacked graphs
|
multiple baseline
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subject to failures of memory
|
case study
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best approach for improving physical health
|
changing criterion
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treatment evaluated twice
|
A-B-A-B
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its weakness led to withdrawal designs
|
A-B
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does grouped data reflect individuals?
|
individual-subject validity
|
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could evaluate two therapies at once
|
alternating treatment
|
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visual image of rate of response
|
cumulative recorder
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a matter of consequences
|
operant conditioning
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In psychology’s early years, approximately 1880-1920,
a. most research was purely qualitative, because statistical analysis didn’t develop until the 1930s (with Fisher and ANOVA) b. a typical study involves 2-3 participants, with complete data for each person described c. most research involved the study of animals (e.g., maze learning) d. most research summarized data from relatively large samples, but only descriptive statistics were used (e.g., means, graphs) |
a. true about Fisher, but even before ANOVA, much research was quantitative
b. CORRECT ANSWER – with the Dressler study on facial vision as a prime example c. most research involved human participants (“observers”) d. some research summarized data from relatively large samples, but most research involved small N |
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Which of the following is true about Thorndike’s research on cats in puzzle boxes?
a. it failed the individual-subject validity test b. it shows the limitations of studying just a single cat – no external validity c. it is an example of an unfortunate tendency among early researchers to attribute human characteristics to animals – it failed the parsimony test d. it illustrates the strategy of using additional subjects for the purpose of replication |
a. this can only occur if data from large groups is combined and the group averages don’t reflect individual behavior – Thorndike didn’t combine the data
b. Thorndike replicated his results on a number of cats c. Thorndike did the opposite – his explanation was quite parsimonious d. CORRECT ANSWER – Thorndike tested several cats and presented data for each |
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Which of the following is true about “continuity theory” in the concept-learning area?
a. it is a reasonably good explanation of the gradual process of trial and error learning that occurs when children learn concepts b. it shows how faulty conclusions can result when grouped data does not reflect individual performance c. it has been replaced by a theory that blends continuity and noncontinuity d. it shows how a theory can hold up over time, even if it is based on small N research |
a. noncontinuity theory provides a better explanation
b. CORRECT ANSWER – grouping the data disguised the hypothesis-testing strategies used by children c. it has been replaced by noncontinuity theory d. it was based on large N research and it hasn’t held up over time |
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Compared to an A-B-A design, an A-B-A-B design
a. includes a withdrawal procedure b. is less parsimonious and is therefore less likely to be used c. tests treatment effectiveness more frequently d. includes two periods in which treatment does not occur |
a. this is true of both designs (when “A” follows ”B”)
b. because it evaluates the program twice, it is more likely to be used c. CORRECT ANSWER – treatment = “B” d. this is true of both designs (signified by “A”) |
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Skinner would agree with all of the following statements except
a. operant workers should focus on doing the basic research to understand the experimental analysis of behavior – applications can wait b. if you adequately control conditions, you will observe orderly behavior c. in an experimental analysis of behavior, the only result worth recording is whether or not a behavior occurs and how often it occurs d. behavior is controlled by the consequences that immediately follow the behavior |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – Skinner was a strong advocate of application, so he would
disagree with this statement b. he would agree – this paraphrases Pavlov, one of Skinner’s idols c. he would agree – this is a reference to the reliance on response as the preferred dependent variable d. he would agree – this is the cornerstone of operant conditioning |
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So-called single-subject designs include all of the following elements except
a. a stage during which treatment is withdrawn b. clear operational definitions of the behavior(s) to be changed c. establishing a baseline level of responding d. introducing some treatment program after a baseline has been established |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – not all designs have a withdrawal stage (e.g., multiple baseline)
b. precise definitions are essential c. establishing baseline is always the first step d. all single-subject designs essentially start with A-B |
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The example of training ADHD children to focus on studying illustrated which design?
a. multiple baseline b. A-B-A-B c. changing criterion d. withdrawal |
a. this design creates separate baselines for several behaviors, individuals, or situations
b. CORRECT ANSWER – after baseline, peer reinforcement was used to increase on-task behavior; then the reinforcement was withdrawn, and then reapplied c. this design compares different programs d. this design introduces a treatment program then removes it |
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Consider the Research example that used a multiple baseline design to evaluate a program to improve the speaking behavior of children with stuttering problems. Which of the following true about that study?
a. it illustrated the kind of multiple baseline in which the same behavior is changed in a single individual in several environments (e.g., home and school) b. multiple baselines were established more “multiple children” (i.e., program introduced at different times for different children) c. it illustrates a problem with some single-subject research –a lack of follow-up data d. the stuttering returned when the program was withdrawn |
a. the program was introduced in one environment – the home; data were collected at school,however, as a way of testing generalization
b. CORRECT ANSWER – there were eight different children in the study c. lack of follow-up is sometimes used as a criticism of this type of research, but this study included follow-up data strengthening the conclusion about program success d. this is a good example of a situation in which a withdrawal design might be rejected on ethical grounds (once a child stops stuttering, why take the chance of having the behavior return by removing the program?) |
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The Research example using linebackers illustrated which design?
a. A-B-A-B b. multiple baselines, one for each environment (e.g., practice, game) c. multiple baselines, one for each linebacker d. multiple baselines, one for each behavior |
a. there was no withdrawal period in the study
b. behaviors during practice and games were compared, but for generalization purposes, not to establish different baselines c. more than one linebacker participated, but baselines were created, for each of them, for three different behaviors d. CORRECT ANSWER – the behaviors were “reads, drops, and tackles” |
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Social validity is said to exist when
a. the results generalize to other social environments b. the results for the group as a whole reflect individual behavior c. the extent to which a successful program is actually used by people d. the results for one person are replicated with other people |
a. this is external validity
b. this is individual-subject validity c. CORRECT ANSWER – social validity also involves whether the program has value for improving society and whether its value is perceived as such by the study’s participants d. this is simply the replication issue |
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In an A-A1-B-A1-B single-subject design
a. A and A1 refer to drug and placebo, respectively b. A and A1 are two different persons c. A and A1 refer to contingent and noncontingent reinforcement d. A and A1 refer to two separate baselines |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – this design is often used to evaluate drug effectiveness
b. evaluating two different persons probably requires a multiple baseline design c. contingent and noncontingent reinforcement are evaluated in an A-B-C-B design d. this is not a multiple baseline design |
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Which of the following is true about case studies?
a. they only shed light on abnormal behavior (e.g., the bizarre memory of S.) b. because only single individuals are studied, they aren’t useful for theory evaluation c. external validity can be a problem d. they are more illustrative of quantitative then qualitative research |
a. in fact, the case of S. demonstrates why rapid forgetting from STM is functional
b. they can serve the purpose of falsification (e.g., Clever Hans) c. CORRECT ANSWER – the results might not generalize to other individuals d. the opposite is true |
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When the general research outcome applies to most of the participants in a study, the study is said to have
a. social validity b. individual-subject validity c. internal validity d. external validity |
a. this refers to the value of an applied behavior analysis program to improve society
b. CORRECT ANSWER – and advocates of small N designs argue that most large N designs lack this kind of validity c. this refers to the methodological soundness of a study (absence of confounds) d. this concerns whether the results of a study generalize beyond the constraints of the study |
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When is a multiple baseline design preferred over an A–B–A–B design?
a. when the target behavior cannot be reached all at once b. when the goal is to compare two different treatment strategies in the same participant c. when withdrawing treatment is not feasible for some reason d. when the goal is to study more than a single individual |
a. this situation calls for a changing criterion design
b. this situation calls for an alternating treatments design c. CORRECT ANSWER – withdrawal might not always be possible for practical or ethical reasons d. more than a single individual can be studied with any of the small N designs |
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In the method of _____________, the researcher becomes a member of the group being observed.
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participant observation
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In observational research, the observer’s presence might cause _________ in participants.
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reactivity
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If an observational study uses just a single observer, then ____________ cannot be calculated.
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interobserver reliability
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_________ sampling is used in situations when researchers do not have access to the names of the entire population being studied.
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cluster
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Phone surveys should be brief; hence, they should rely more on ___________ question than on __________ questions.
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closed; open
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On a survey, when asking for someone’s knowledge about some information, one must be cautious when giving participants a choice known as the _____________.
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DK alternative
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On a survey, respondents with a _____________ bias will respond the way they think they are supposed to respond, rather than as a reflection of their true beliefs or feelings.
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social desireability
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An example of a(n) ___________ would be to record the number of fingerprints on the glass cases of different exhibits in a museum.
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unobtrusive measure
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problem for Literary Digest
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self-selection
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designed to reduce observer biasing effects
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behavior checklist
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responders very different from nonresponders
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nonresponse bias
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informed consent generally waived
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naturalistic observations
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name, age, income
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demographic
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like stratified, but non probability
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quota sample
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lowest cost survey
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electronic survey
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list of those who could be in a survey
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sample frame
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Kinsey's research on sex for example
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interview
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yes or no is the response
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closed question
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In naturalistic observation studies with animals,
a. observers simply make sure they are hidden from the animals b. observers assume that the animals will eventually habituate to their presence c. observers rely on video recordings only d. none of the above – reactivity only occurs with human subjects |
a. this is very difficult if not impossible with most species
b. CORRECT ANSWER – researchers assume that animals will behave naturally once they become accustomed to the observers and recognize that the observers are not a threat c. video recordings can be useful, in a zoo setting perhaps, but can be impractical in a field setting d. reactivity also occurs with animals, especially those with developed cortexes |
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Crowley et al.’s study on how parents explain science to their children when visiting museums included
a. interviews with parents b. informed consent c. time sampling d. observations occurring in a structured environment designed to study rarely occurring behaviors |
a. no interviews were completed
b. CORRECT ANSWER – consent was obtained upon entry to the museum c. no, but they did use event sampling d. the observations occurred with no attempt to intervene or create a structured environment |
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Which of the following characterized Festinger’s observational research on a religious cult?
a. the presence of the participant observers might have strengthened the commitment levels of cult members b. as in virtually all participant observation research, even today, informed consent of the group being observed was not obtained c. the observers carried hidden tape recorders, making it easy to accumulate data without relying on memory d. Festinger was able to show that cults typically broke apart after a prophecy failed |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – the addition of new members might have reinforced the beliefs of cult members
b. informed consent was not obtained, but consent is a common practice today c. Festinger’s observers did not have tape recorders, and memory was a problem d. Festinger was able to show how cults become even more committed to their message after a prophecy fails, and the finding contributed to the development of his theory of cognitive dissonance |
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Observer bias
a. is more likely to occur in naturalistic observation than in participant observation b. can be eliminated by using unobtrusive measures of behavior c. is the reason why observational research cannot be used for falsification purposes d. can be reduced by using behavior checklists |
a. equally likely to occur in both types of observation
b. can still occur with unobtrusive measures c. is certainly a problem, but observational research, if well done, can be used for falsification d. CORRECT ANSWER – especially if the checklist is precise and observers are given some training |
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Suppose you wish to test a representative sample of students in your religious studies class on attitudes toward women in the priesthood. There are 80 people in the class, 55 females and 25 males. What’s the best sampling strategy?
a. simple random sample b. cluster sample c. stratified sample d. convenience sample |
a. not a good idea, with such a disproportion of males and females, and an issue on which males and females might differ
b. no need – the population is small and known c. CORRECT ANSWER – it will be important for the male-female proportion in the sample to match the proportion in the class d. this situation calls for a representative (i.e., probability) sample |
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When probability sampling is called for, but the complete list of people in the population is impossible to obtain, which sampling strategy is most likely to be used?
a. simple random sample b. cluster sample c. stratified sample d. convenience sample |
a. requires a complete list of the population
b. CORRECT ANSWER – you will sample from clusters of people defined in some way c. stratified sampling also requires a complete list of the population d. convenience sampling is not probability sampling |
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Compared to other surveying techniques, which of the following is true about face-to-face interviews?
a. the researcher is more likely to be limited to closed questions b. question ambiguity is more of a problem c. cross-race bias is more likely to occur d. sampling is less of a problem |
a. open-ended questions and follow-up questions are actually easier with interviews
b. question ambiguity is less of a problem because the interviewer can clarify on the spot c. CORRECT ANSWER – some bias can occur if blacks interview whites and vice-versa d. sampling can be a big problem with interviews – for example, the poor may be underrepresented |
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If the response rate is very low, those who respond might be different in important ways from the target population. When this happens, it is called a
a. nonresponse bias b. social desirability bias c. confirmation bias d. experimenter bias |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – the sample in this case would not be representative
b. this occurs when respondents answer questions as they think they ought to answer them, rather than as a reflection of their true opinion c. not relevant – confirmation bias is a tendency to look for evidence in support of one’s beliefs d. experimenter bias in survey research might occur if a researcher words questions in such a way as to produce a desired response |
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There are several ways to increase the return rate of a mailed written survey. Which of the following is not one of them?
a. include more open-ended questions than closed questions (shows respondents you really care about their responses) b. send a reminder after a certain period of time passes without a response (shows that you consider their response to be important) c. keep the survey brief, the instructions simple, and the items easy to understand (if respondents become confused, they will toss the survey) d. make it clear that you are not trying to sell something(respondents tend to be suspicious) |
a. CORRECT ANSWER – the opposite is true; people prefer surveys that can be completed quickly and simply
b. reminders are a good idea c. this is also a good idea d. so is this |
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The Ethics Box in Chapter 12 describes the case of a female journalist who was fired after the station conducted a survey. Which of the following was true about the survey?
a. the survey was fair but the sample was biased b. the survey was fair and the sample appropriate, but no statistical summary was given c. although the results were summarized statistically, no inferential statistical analysis was completed d. the survey was in an interview format; a written survey would have been better |
a. some of the survey questions reflected bias (e.g., focusing on attractiveness instead of journalistic skills)
b. statistical analysis was done, but done inappropriately (no inferential analysis) c. CORRECT ANSWER – all that was reported were summary statistics d. the survey was in a written format |
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Which of the following was true about the Plous survey on attitudes toward the use of animals in research?
a. professors were in favor of using animals, but students were opposed b. he used a stratified sampling procedure c. the male-female proportion of his sample closely matched the proportions in the population d. by asking only if respondents “supported” animal research, the survey questions were biased |
a. both groups were in favor
b. he used a cluster sampling procedure c. CORRECT ANSWER – this made him feel better about the relatively low response rate d. Plous carefully phrased his questions to include both “support” and “opposed” |
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What is a best overall recommendation about the use of DK alternatives?
a. only use them when collecting demographic information b. because respondents choose them too frequently, they should be avoided c. they are needed when surveying those with moderate to low verbal ability d. only use them if there is good reason to suspect that some respondents truly won’t know the answer |
a. they are used when assessing memory and knowledge, not when collecting demographic data
b. they should not be overused, but are needed at times c. not relevant d. CORRECT ANSWER – failing to include them at all might make it impossible for some people to answer some questions |
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Demographic information includes all of the following except
a. information about number of siblings in the family b. information about the income level of the respondent c. information about someone’s opinion about democracy d. information about marital status |
a. this is demographic information
b. this is demographic information c. CORRECT ANSWER – this is information about someone’s attitude, perhaps the focus of the survey d. this is demographic information |
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Which of the following is an open-ended question?
a. Do you have a good sense of direction? b. Why do some people have a better sense of direction than others? c. both alternatives a. and b. are open-ended d. none of the above |
a. this is a closed question – yes or no answer
b. CORRECT ANSWER – involves more than a yes or no answer c. only alternative b. is open ended d. alternative b. is open ended |
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What is a sample frame?
a. it concerns whether or not probability sampling will be used b. it refers to range of questions that will be asked of the sample c. it is just another term for population d. it refers to the group of people from whom the sample will be selected |
a. the concept does not relate to the type of sampling procedure used
b. decisions about the form of the questions are separate from decisions about samples c. it can equal the population, but it is usually a subset of the population d. CORRECT ANSWER – the sample will be drawn from the list that is the sample frame |
