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214 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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the process of breathing
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ventilation
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the process of exchanging gases
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respiration
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Why do we need Oxygen to live?
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we need oxygen to make ATP
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CO2 is a byproduct made in the cells as a result of:________
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normal chemical reactions (metabolism)
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External Respiration
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exchange gases between lungs and the blood
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Internal Respiration
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exchanges between the blood and the tissue cells
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Pharynx serves both the ______ & _____ systems
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digestive & respiratory
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nose services the ______ system, and mouth services the ______ system
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respiratory digestive
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Pharynx is broken into these 3 parts:
top - ________ (behind nose) middle -_______ (behind mouth) lower-________ |
nasopharynx
oropharynx laryngopharynx |
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short, cartilaginous tube joining pharynx with the Trachea
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Larynx
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Cartilage flap that tilts over entrance to larynx when swallowing, to prevent food, drinks, and saliva from entering Trachea
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Epiglottis
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Part of the Pharynx that allows the passage of air only
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Nasopharynx
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Parts of the Pharynx that allows the passage of food and fluids
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Oropharynx & Laryngopharynx
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Short tube that begins at the rear of the nasal cavity and ends at the larynx
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Pharynx
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Two tubes that take the air into the lungs
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Primary Bronchi
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Right lung has _____ lobes
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3
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Left lung has ____ lobes
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2
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Primary Bronchi go into each lung and split into ________ which go into each ______
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Secondary Bronchi
lobe |
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the muscle that sits at the base of the lungs
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diaphragm
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the functions of the nose
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to filter, warm, and humidify the air. also to smell
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type of cells the nose is lined with
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stratified squamous epithelial cells
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the stiff hairs growing out of the cells in the nose, designed to pick up and filter larger particles
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vibrissae
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why do the cilia beat towards the throat?
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so you swallow whatever is collected
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cilia are inhibited during
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times of high heat and cold
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Beginning tube of the lower respiratory structures, main function is to keep food and drink out of the airway
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Larynx
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an additional evolved function of the Larynx
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to produce sound
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the top opening of the Larynx
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glottis
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the primary, largest, piece of cartilage that makes up the front part of the Larynx
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Thyroid cartilage
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the growth of thyroid cartilage is under the influence of ________
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testosterone
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the spiky pieces of cartilage on the back of the Larynx and connect to , and move, the vocal cords
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Arytenoid cartilages
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solid ring of cartilage that surrounds the airway, located at the base of the larynx
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Cricoid cartilage
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ways the larynx helps keep food and drink out of the airway
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epiglottis covers the glottis, arytenoid pulls the vocal cords closed, and cricoid cartilage prevents from entering the trachea
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made of ~16 "C" shaped rings of cartilage
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trachea
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what makes up the back of the trachea, and shares a wall with the esophagus
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soft tissue
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the spot located at the bottom of the trachea right before the spit into the Primary Bronchi
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corena
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what does intubating a patient mean
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to put in a breathing tube
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the smallest air tubes in the lung
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terminal bronchioles
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each turminal brochioles end at these air sacs
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alveoli
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each alveolis is made up of a single lay of squamous cells, but are divided into _____ & _______ alveolar cells
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type 1 and type 2
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the type _____ alveolar cells have the gas exchange occur within them
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1
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the type ____ alveolar cells make a special chemical
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2
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the special chemical made by type 2 alveolar cells, and released into the alveolar cells
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surfactant
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the membrane that attaches to the outside of the lung
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visceral pleural membrane
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membrane that lines the cavity that the lung is in
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parietal pleural membrane
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the space between the visceral pleural membrane, and the parietal pleural membrane
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pleural space
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a collapsed lung from from excessive air in the pleural space, usually caused from an injury or surgery, but can also happen spontaneously
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tension pneumothorax
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what do you do to treat a pneumothorax
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administer a chest tube to drain the air out, and allow lung to reexpand
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collapsed lung cause from blood
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hemothorax
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an infection of the pleural membrane, that is extremely painful
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pleurisy
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taking air in, and exhaling it back out
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ventilation
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Boyle's Law
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the pressure of a gas, in a closed container, is inversely proportional to the volume of that container
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what prompts you to inhale
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decreased pressure in the lung, wanting to equal out the pressure
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what prompts you to exhale
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increased pressure in the lung, wanting to equal out the pressure.
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normal breathing pattern
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eupnea
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temporary stopping of breathing
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Apnea
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who is mostly affected from apnea
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obese people and premature babies
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difficult or painful breathing
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dyspnea
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rapid breathing
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tachypnea
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what is considered a normal breathing rate
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16-20 breaths per minute
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smooth muscle closes off air to the alveoli, causing the inability to breath
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asthma
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surface tension
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the attraction of water molecules to each other due to hydrogen bonding
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what kind of bonds form between water molecules
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H-bond
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what does surfactant do?
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it acts as a detergent to disrupt or weakens the surface tension of h-bonds found in the alveoli, so that the alveoli will not collapse
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a condition when alveoli collapse upon exhaling from little to no amounts of surfactant found in the alveoli
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Hyaline membrane disease
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type 2 cells make ______
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surfactant
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an air pocket must be kept in the alveoli for what purpose
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so that it may reinflate
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Dalton's Law
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each gas in a mixture of gases exerts its own pressure as if all other gases were not present.
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partial pressure - p
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pressure exerted by each individual gas in a mixture
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____ will not dissolve well in water
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CO2
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what happens with CO2 when it enters the blood?
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it combines with water in a reversible reaction, under the influence of the enzyme Carbonic Anhydrase, it turns into HCO3- + H+ (bicarbonate)
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what are you measuring when you measure a pH?
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you are measuring the number of H+ in that solution
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When the number of H+ increases:
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the pH goes down, and the solution becomes more acidic
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when the number of H+ decreases:
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the pH goes up, and the solution becomes more alkaline
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7.25 blood pH
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acidosis
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7.55 blood pH
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alkalosis
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when you _______ the number of hydrogen ions, the pH goes down
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increase
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when you ______ the number of hydrogen ions, the pH goes up
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decrease
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normal blood pH
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7.35 - 7.45
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if the pH is out of balance in the blood cause by something other than respiratory it is considered
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metabolic alkalosis/acidosis
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compensatory response
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when one system fails, and a 2nd system tries to correct that failure
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when one system fails, and a 2nd system tries to correct that failure
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compensatory response
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something that will keep a system between 2 parameters
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buffer
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some possible causes of acidosis
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drowning, hyperventilation, pulmonary edema, asthma, trauma,
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____ has nothing to do with acid base balance
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Oxygen
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what will cause respiratory acidosis
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anything that prevents you from blowing off CO2 will cause a person to go into respiratory acidosis
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high binding affinity
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hemoglobin is holding O2 very tightly
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How does hemoglobin know when binding affinity is supposed to be high, and when it should be low
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the partial pressure of O2 & the Bohr Effect
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what is binding afinity
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how tight hemoglobin holds O2
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location of high binding affinity
location of low binding affinity |
closer to the lungs
in the tissue |
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Bohr Effect
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the dropping off of O2 from hemoglobin, and picking up the CO2
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dumping CO2 into the blood from chemical reactions causes the reaction to go to the ______, possibly causing ________
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right
acidosis |
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when CO2 is put into the blood, the bicarbonate reaction causes excessive _____ in the blood
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H+
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hemoglobin drops off the____ which opens up _______ to pick up the extra ______
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O2
4 binding sites H+ |
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when hemoglobin picks up the H+ ions, it no longer has _______ which _____
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a positive charge
changes the pH |
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The 3 groups of cells that make up the respiration center
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pneumotaxic center, apneustic center, medullary rhythmicity center,
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the 3 groups of cells that control the respiratory system are located here
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2 in the pons
1 in the medulla |
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controls basic breathing (16-20 breaths per minute)
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medullary rhythmicity center
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group of cells that increase respiration
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pneumotaxic center
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group of cells that decrease respiration
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apneustic center
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where does the information for the respiratory center come from
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the cerebral cortex
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this can override the respiratory center
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cerebral cortex
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The ______ can override the cerebral cortex when the body gets too close to acidosis
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pneumotaxic center of the respiratory center
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This part of the respiratory center can override the cerebral cortex when CO2 in the body reaches critical levels
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pneumotaxic center
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sensory neurons that detect chemicals in the blood and located in the walls of the aortic arch
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Peripheral Chemoreceptors
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the 2 chemicals the peripheral chemoreceptors look at is ______ which is actually measuring the _______
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CO2 and H+
blood pH |
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detect CO2 and H+ levels in the cerebral spinal fluid
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Central Chemoreceptors
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where do central chemoreceptors report their finding to?
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the respiratory center
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88 y/o male admitted w/ acute pulmonary edema, is blood pH low high or normal, is it acidosis, alkalosis, which part of the respiratory center is activated
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low - acidosis
pneumotaxic |
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will activating the respiratory center when patient is in pulmonary edema be helpful? what will help correct this problem
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No
a compensatory response from the Urinary System |
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anatomy of the urinary system includes
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kidneys, ureters, (urinary) bladder, urethra
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the space where the kidneys are located
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retroperitoneal space
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the area of the kidney where all tubes enter and exit the kidney
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Renal Hilus
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functions of the urinary ststem
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filter blood, regulate blood pH, regulate blood pressure (renin/angiotension pathway), several contributions to metabolism
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the kidneys pull out the ______ from the blood and put it into ______
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waste
urine |
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filtering the blood means to:
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regulate the blood volume and composition: ( how much blood is there and what's in it)
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define waste product
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anything the body doesn't need at a specific moment in time
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how can the kidneys help with the problem of pulmonary edema?
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pull H+ out of the blood, and deposit it into urine
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normal pH levels of urine
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4-8
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what involvements do the kidneys have to metabolism
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involved with Vit D pathway, make erythropoietin, gluconegenesis
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term meaning the kidneys can make glucose from something different, like fats
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gluconeogenesis
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outside covering of kidney
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renal capsule
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purpose of renal capsule
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to help maintain the shape of the kidney and protection
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the spot where the urine collect from a single pyramid
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minor calyx
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the section of the kidney that hold the pyramids
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medulla
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outer portion of the kidney between the pyramid and the renal capsule
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cortex
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pleural for calyx
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calyces
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several minor calyces pull their urine into ______
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major calyces
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major calyces drain into the _______ where it then goes to the ureters
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renal pelvis
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the functional unit of the kidney
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nephron
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aprox how many nephrons per kidney
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1 million
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the options for a kidney when all nephrons have been destroyed
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transplant and dialysis
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some causes for renal failure
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trauma, dehydration, disease
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the 2 things a nephron needs
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a blood supply, tubes to put urine in
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what type of pressure is experienced between the glomerulus capillary and the Bowman's capsule
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BHP
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BHP stands for
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blood hydrostatic pressure
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the main thing that happens between the glomerulus capillary and the Bowman's capsule
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BHP => Filtration
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_____ is the higher in glomerulus capillary than anywhere else in the body
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BHP
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how length affects the high BPH/filtration rate of the glomerulus capillary
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greater resistance because of the length of the glomerulus capillary which in turn increases the pressure inside that vessel
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the 3 reasons BHP/filtration is highest in the glomerulus capillary
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1. length of tube-increase resistance - increased pressure for that vessel
2.glomerulus wall / Capsular wall very thin and porous 3. afferent larger than efferent, causing back pressure |
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What is too big to be filtered into the capsular space
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proteins and blood cells
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inside layer of the Bowman's capsule
outside later middle section |
visceral layer
parietal layer capsular space |
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BHP is so big in the glomerulus capillary, it makes the filtration so big causing _________
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almost everything leaves the blood and goes into the capsular space
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filtrate
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the liquid portion of the filtered stuff that later turns into urine
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how much filtrate is made per day on average
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180L/day
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how much urine is voided on average per day
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1-2L/day
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during reabsorption how much is put back into the blood:
glucose H20 |
100%
65% |
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as the filtrate enters the descending limb,which extends into the medulla it encounters a ________
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Na+ Concentration Gradient
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the purpose of the Na+ Concentration Gradient is to
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gradually move H2O from the filtrate in the descending limb which will return to the blood
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where is all glucose and most H2O reabsorbed
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the PCT , or Peritubular Capillary
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define reabsorption
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to put something back into the blood
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match:
reabortion selective or non selective filtration selective or non selective |
selective
non selective |
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water will move out of the descending limb until_______
what needs to happens then? |
the osmotic pressure is equal
more NA+ is needed to re-upset the osmotic pressure, to move more water out |
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what is the significance of the NA+ gradient in the medulla
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move out gradually the appropriate amounts of H2O from the filtrate and back into the blood
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Where are NA+ actively pumped out of the filtrate?
Why are they pumped out? |
the ascending limb
to keep the NA+ gradient established. |
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the cells of the afferent arterioles that cross the ascending limb
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juxtaglomerular cells
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cells of the ascending limb that cross the afferent arterioles
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macula densa
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the pore or slit in between the single cells of a wall is called the _____
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fenestration
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the juxtaglomerular cells and the macula densa make up the
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juxtaglomerular apparatus
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what do the juxtaglomerular cells and the macula densa communicate about
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fluid volume, osmotic pressures, and other things for fine tuning
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if low fluid volume is detected the dojuxtaglomerular cells make______ which causes what?
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renin, which will start the renin/angiotensin pathway
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Angiotensin II does what
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stimulates the release of Aldosterone, and vesoconstrics the arterioles
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why wont renin get filtered once released into the blood
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it is a protein
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what capillary is associated with the DCT
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peritubular capillary
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what is the main thing that happens between the DCT and the peritubular capillary
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the waste that was missed during filtration, moved (secreted) from the blood into the tube
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define secretion
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to release something into a tube
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secretion from the peritubular to the DCT is considered
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selective
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reabsorption moves _____ from the _____ to the _________
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good things
tube blood |
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secretion moves _______ from the ______ to the ________
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bad things (waste)
blood tube |
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fine tune the fluid volume and make any necessarily adjustments to the blood pH is done here
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DCT and collecting duct
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2 types of cells in the DCT and collecting duct
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principal cells and intercalated cells
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Principal cells
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a cell found in the DCT and Collecting duct, who are the target cells and have binding site for ADH and Aldosterone
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what do principal cells do when ADH binds to them
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the principal cells become activate and move water from the filtrate into the blood
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what do principal cells do when Aldosterone binds to them
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the principal cells will start to move NA+ into the blood
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when you add particles into the blood it causes
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an osmotic imbalance, which causes water to follow to try to correct the unbalanced osmotic pressure
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what is the job of the Intercalated cells
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to move H+ to adjust the blood pH by pulling H+ from the blood and put into the filtrate
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the Intercalated cells pulls H+ from the blood and puts it into the urine, causing the urine pH to _______
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go down, and become more acidic
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the rate at which the glomerulus filters the blood
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Glomeruler Filtration Rate
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the GFR is directly dependent on
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the BHP
>pressure = > filtration, <pressure = < filtration |
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if GFR is not constant it can cause
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waste missed and inadequate filtration, and possible capillary rupture
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what special ways do we have to keep the GFR constant regardless of the systemic rate
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Renal Autoregulation, sympathetic N.S., the Endocrine system
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what vesoconstrics the afferent arteriole when you have transient hypertension
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the juxtaglomerulus vesoconstrics the afferent arteriole to reduce the blood volume, which decreases the pressure, and vesodialates the efferent arteriole to lower back pressure
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if systemic pressure is too low
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the juxtaglomerulus vesodialates the afferent arteriole to increase the blood volume, which increases the blood pressure, and vesoconstrics the efferent arteriole to increase back pressure
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which sympathetic neuron will be stimulated if the systemic pressure is too high
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the sympathetic neuron that stimulates the afferent neuron, to increase blood volume
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which sympathetic neuron will be stimulated if the systemic pressure is too low
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the sympathetic neuron that stimulates the efferent neuron, to increase back pressure
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sympathetic neurons work ________ of each other
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independent
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the endocrine system will _____ when blood volume is too low
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have the juxtaglomerular produce renin to start the renin/angiotension pathway
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the endocrine system will ______ when blood volume is too high
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produce ANP from the right atrium of the heart to reduce fluid volume
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what does insulin do specifically
|
it open doors to cells to let glucose in to make ATP
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symptoms of Diabetes
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thirst - polydipsia
urination - polyuria hunger - polyphagia |
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Why are diabetics hungry
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they have excessive amounts of glucose, but lack insulin is not allowing the cells to open and allow glucose in, cells are starving and send signal to brain about hunger
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If glucose can get into cells directly what is done to feed the cells
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the cells attempt to break down fat.
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what is a fat cell broken down into<
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a glucose and a ketone
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as ketons are made, where are they put, and what is the problem with that?
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they are put into the blood, causing the pH to go lower, causing acidosis
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low pH from excessive amounts of ketone in the blood
|
ketoacidosis
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what are some causes of ketons in the urine, but no glucose
|
Atkins diet, anorexia, morning sickness (excessive vomitting during pregnancy),
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if any glucose is found in the urine, they are _______
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diabetic
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Transport Maximum = Tm
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max rate that cell doors are opening and closing and transporting glucose as fast as they can, at their maximum speed
|
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in diabetics, if glucose is not put back into the blood, where does it go?
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it stays into the filtrate
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when a diabetic gets a lot of glucose goes down the descending limb, what does this do
|
it reverses osmosis because there are more particles in the descending limb,
and causes NA+ to enter the descending limb |
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how much can an uncontrolled diabetic urinate a day
|
20 - 30L a day
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what amount can a typical bladder comfortably hold
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700-800 mL
|
|
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to pee, or urinate
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Micturation
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the way we typically move most things through tubes throughout the body
|
peristalsis
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define peristalsis:
|
the alternating contraction and relaxation of the longitudinal and circular muscles in the wall of a tube, that move the contents in one direction through that tube
|
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the urethra is guarded by ______
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2 sphincters
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define sphincter
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a circular muscle that can open or close
|
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how is the first urethra sphincter opened?
|
a nerve associated with sphincter is stimulated when bladder is full (pressure), its a reflex ran through the spinal cord
|
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how is the second urethra sphincter opened?
|
it is controlled voluntarily, nerve come from the cerebral cortex that allows us to open & close it on our own.
|
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what is the name of the reflex that opens the first urethra sphincter
|
Micturation Reflex
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difficult or painful urination
conditions that can cause this |
Dysuria
UTI, |
|
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overactive bladder symptoms
conditions that can cause this |
Frequency
prostate problems, UTI, pregnancy |
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excessive urinating at night
conditions that can cause this |
Nocturia
prostate problems, alcohol, late term pregnancy |
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unable to urinate
conditions that can cause this |
Urinary retention
prostate problems, anesthesia, |
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blood in the urine
conditions that can cause this |
Hematuria
UTI, menstruation, kidney problems, trauma to kidneys |
