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154 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is the respiratory system consisted of? |
*nose and nasal cavity *pharynx (throat) *larynx (voice box) *trachea (windpipe) *bronchial tubes *lungs |
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What are the seven functions of the respiratory system? |
*supplies O2 to blood and gets rid of CO2 *cleaning and filtering air *ventilation *gas exchange *gas transport *smell *speech |
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What are the two parts of the respiratory system? These are often used to refer to locations of infections. |
*upper respiratory system (tract) *lower respiratory system (tract) |
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What are the three components of the upper respiratory system? |
*nose and nasal cavity *pharynx (throat) *larynx (voice box) |
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What are the three components of the lower respiratory system? |
*trachea (windpipe) *bronchi (airways) *lungs |
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The nose is divided into two sides by what? |
the nasal septum |
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What is another name for external nares? |
nostrils (open into the nasal cavity) |
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What is the nasal septum made of? |
bone and cartilage |
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What are internal nares? |
the back openings of the nose into the nasopharynx |
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What are nasal conchae? |
They are on the lateral walls and swirl air and expose the lining to more air |
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What are the neural cells used for? Where are they found? |
Sense of smell--olfactory epithelium (found in the roof of the nasal cavity) |
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What type of cells are found in the nose? |
*pseudo-stratified ciliated columnar *goblet cells line the nasal cavity |
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What do goblet cells do? |
They produce a lot of mucus |
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Describe the lining of the nose. |
*large blood supply that warms air *mucous moistens air and traps dust *cilia move mucous towards pharynx |
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What do the paranasal sinuses open into? |
the nasal cavity (they are spongy)
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What kind of bones are found in the paranasal sinuses? |
*found in ethmoid, sphenoid, frontal, and maxillary bones |
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What are two functions of the paranasal sinuses? |
*lighten the skull *resonate your voice |
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What is the pharynx? |
the throat, a tube about 5 inches long |
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Where does the pharynx start and stop? |
extends from internal nares to the end of the larynx |
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What are the three functions of the pharynx? |
*passage of food and air *resonating chamber for speech production *tonsils (lymphatic tissue) protect from infection |
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What are the three regions of the pharynx? |
*nasopharynx *oropharynx *laryngopharynx |
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What is the nasopharynx? What kind of cells is it lined with? |
*lined similarly to the nasal cavity with pseudo stratified columnar *only used for air (no food) *right behind the nasal cavity *extends from internal nares to soft palate *receives auditory tubes *contains pharyngeal tonsil |
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What is the oropharynx? What kind of cells is it lined with? |
*stratified squamous cells *extends from soft palate to epiglottis *contains palatine (hangs in back of mouth) and lingual (under base of tongue) tonsils *for food and air |
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What is the laryngopharynx? What type of cells is it made of? |
*stratified squamous *extends from epiglottis to cricoid cartilage *food and air can pass through |
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What is the larynx? What is it made of? |
*made of 9 cartilages and connective tissue *3 single large cartilages (epiglottis, thyroid, cricoid) *3 paired cartilages/2 of each (arytenoid, corniculate, cuneiform) *contains vocal cords/voice box |
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What is the trachea? What cell type is it made of? Where does it start and stop? |
*it extends from the larynx into the chest where it divides to form two bronchi *5 inches long, 1 inch in diameter *16 to 20 incomplete C shaped cartilage rings *lined with columnar pseudo stratified epithelium and goblet cells |
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What is the bronchial tree? |
It starts with the trachea, splits into the two bronchi, and branches into the lungs |
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Describe the gross anatomy of the lungs. How many lobes is the right lung divided into? How many lobes is the left lung divided into? Where is the cardiac notch found? |
*base, apex, and oblique fissure in both lungs *oblique and horizontal fissure in right lung results in 3 lobes *oblique fissure only in left lung produces 2 lobes *cardiac notch in left lung only |
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Where do blood vessels and airways enter the lungs? |
at the hilus--it is an anchor that holds the lungs in place |
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What are the lungs covered with? |
A membrane called the visceral pleura--becomes parietal pleura over the ribcage with pleural fluid in between. The fluid is a lubricant for when lungs inflate and deflate. |
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What is a lung lobule? |
each lobe of each lung is made of smaller compartments |
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What does a lung lobule consist of. |
*terminal bronchiole (supplies air to lobule) *each terminal bronchiole divides into several respiratory bronchioles *respiratory bronchioles divide into alveolar ducts *alveolar ducts supply air to alveolar air sacs *each each is composed of two or more smaller alveoli *extensive blood supply |
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What is the smallest duct in the bronchial tree?
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alveolar ducts are the smallest duct in the bronchial tree |
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What do alveolar ducts do in the lung lobules? |
They supply air to the alveolar air sacs |
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What do terminal bronchiole do in lung lobules? |
they supply air to the lobule |
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What do the terminal bronchiole divide into? |
into several respiratory bronchioles |
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What do the respiratory bronchioles divide into? |
they divide into alveolar ducts |
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What are the three types of alveolar cells? |
*type 1: make alveolar epithelium wall *type 2: septal cells that secrete surfactant (assist with breathing) *type 3: alveolar macrophage cells (eat all microorganisms that get into the alveoli/phagocytosis) |
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Describe the layers of the respiratory membrane. |
*made of 6 layers (4 tissue layers and 2 fluid layers) |
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What is the function of the respiratory membrane? |
it separates the lung capillary blood from the alveolar air
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What does the respiratory membrane allow? |
*it allows oxygen to diffuse from alveolar air into the lung capillary blood *it allows carbon dioxide to diffuse from the lung capillary blood into the alveolar air |
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The easy exchange of gases between air and alveoli and blood capillaries, happens in...
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normal, healthy, respiratory membranes |
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How does pneumonia affect the respiratory membrane and gas exchange? |
*it is fluid accumulation inside the alveoli *fluid layer thickens the membrane *makes process of gas exchange/diffusion very difficult *decreases the respiratory exchange of gases |
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What is the affect of emphysema on the respiratory membrane? |
*membrane is destroyed by toxins, acid inhalation, pollution, or smoking *surface area available for gas exchange is much less than normal *breathing and gas exchange becomes more difficult |
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What is ventilation? |
negative draft ventilation--air moves in from high pressure area (negative pressure) |
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What is breathing in called? |
inspiration or inhalation |
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What is breathing out called? |
expiration or exhalation |
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What is the pressure within the lung called? |
alveolar pressure |
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What is the pressure within the pleural cavities called? What does this pressure do the the lungs? |
*intra-pleural pressure--always less than atmospheric pressure *keeps lungs attached to the chest wall and inflated |
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Describe Boyle's Law. |
If you have a closed container, as: *volume decreases, pressure increases *volume increase, pressure decreases This happens in lungs during breathing. |
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What is quiet resting ventilation called? |
eupnea |
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What happens during inhalation during eupnea? |
*air moves into lungs when pressure inside lungs is less than atmospheric pressure *contraction of diaphragm and ribs, external intercostal muscles enlarge chest and reduce alveolar pressure to less than atmospheric pressure *air drafts into lungs (negative draft) *chest size is increased/pressure decreased |
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What happens during exhalation during eupnea? |
*air moves out of lungs when atmospheric pressure is less than the pressure inside lungs *diaphragm and external intercostal muscles relax *chest gets smaller *elastic recoil of alveoli creates alveolar pressure greater than atmospheric pressure *air is pushed out of lungs |
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When does forced ventilation happen? |
during exercise |
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Describe forced ventilation inspiration during exercise. |
*requires a larger decrease in intracellular and alveolar pressures than resting inspiration *diaphragm and external intercostal rib muscles contract more forcefully making the chest wider *back muscles contract and pull the ribs backwards making the chest wider *results in deeper breaths |
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Describe forced ventilation expiration during exercise. |
*requires a larger increase in intracellular and alveolar pressures than resting expiration *diaphragm and external intercostal rib muscles relax *internal intercoastal rib muscles contract compressing the rib cage making chest smaller *abdominal muscles contract compressing abdominal organs and forcing the diaphragm to move up further *air forced out |
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What is dead air volume? Is it involved in the gas exchange process?
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*fills conducting division of airways and not involved in the gas exchange process *this is the air in the nostrils that has not reached the alveoli |
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What is anatomic dead space? |
the conducting division of airways (trachea and airways)--no gas exchange |
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What is physiologic dead space? |
the sum of anatomic dead space and any pathological alveolar dead space with no gas exchange (alveoli is collapsed, turned off, diseased) |
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What is alveolar ventilation rate? |
*calculate: air that ventilates alveoli x respiratory rate *directly relevant to ability for gas exchange |
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What is one measure of quantity of air? |
volume |
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What is the sum of two or more volumes? |
capacity |
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What device is used to measure volumes and capacities? What does it create when used? |
*called a spirometer or respirometer *creates a record called a spirogram |
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What are the four types of lung volumes? |
*tidal volume *inspiratory reserve volume *expiratory reserve volume *residual volume |
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What is tidal volume? |
(Vt) volume of air of one breath |
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What is inspiratory reserve volume? |
(IRV) volume of air inspired in addition to Vt |
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What is expiratory reserve volume? |
(ERV) volume of air expired in addition to Vt |
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What is residual volume? |
(RV) volume of air that cannot be expired even with maximum forced expiration |
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What are the four types of lung capacities? |
*inspiratory capacity *functional residual capacity *vital capacity *total lung capacity |
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How do you calculate inspiratory capacity? |
IC=Vt + IRV equals tidal volume plus inspiratory reserve volume |
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How do you calculate functional residual capacity? |
FRC= RV + ERV equals residual volume plus expiratory reserve volume |
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How do you calculate vital capacity? |
VC= Vt + IRV + ERV equals tidal volume plus inspiratory reserve volume plus expiratory reserve volume |
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How do you calculate total lung capacity? |
TLC = Vt + IRV + ERV + RV equals tidal volume plus inspiratory reserve volume plus expiratory reserve volume plus residual volume |
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What does FEV1 stand for? What level should it be at? |
*forced expiratory volume in one second *percentage of vital capacity expired in one second *should be 75% or higher |
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What does a low value of FEV1 mean? |
If it is lower than 75%, it indicates airway obstruction, lung disease, or weakness of respiratory muscles |
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What gas exchange happens in the lungs? |
alveolar gas exchange |
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What gases are exchanged during alveolar gas exchange? How are they exchanged? |
*diffusion of O2 from alveolar air into blood *diffusion of CO2 from blood into alveolar air |
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What gas exchange happens in the tissues? |
systemic gas exchange |
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What gases are exchanged during systemic gas exchange? How are they exchanged? |
*diffusion of O2 from blood into tissues *diffusion of CO2 from tissues into blood |
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What is diffusion? |
It is movement across the extremely thin respiratory membrane or the capillary wall from higher to lower concentration of gases |
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What is stated by Dalton's Law of partial pressure? |
In a mixture of gasses, the total pressure is equal to the sum of pressures contributed by each individual gas. *individual pressures are partial pressures *symbole for partial pressure of gas: Pg |
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What is PaO2? |
*a symbol for partial pressure of oxygen in oxygenated arterial blood (about 95 mmHg) |
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What is PaCO2? |
*a symbol for partial pressure of carbon dioxide in oxygenated arterial blood (about 40 mmHg) |
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What is PvO2? |
*a symbol for partial pressure of oxygen in deoxygenated venous blood (about 40 mmHg) |
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What is PvCO2? |
*a symbol for partial pressure of carbon dioxide in deoxygenated venous blood (about 45 mmHg) |
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After blood goes through alveolar gas exchange, is it oxygenated or deoxygenated? |
It is oxygenated |
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After blood goes through systemic gas exchange, is it oxygenated or deoxygenated? |
It is deoxygenated |
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What is Henry's Law? |
The amount of gas that will dissolve in a liquid is proportional to: *partial pressure of the gas *solubility of the gas in liquid *temperature of the liquid |
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What is the big picture of Henry's Law? |
The more oxygen in the air, results in more oxygen in the blood. |
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What does hemoglobin transport? How much does it transport? |
*it uses iron to carry oxygen *accounts for 98.5% |
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How much oxygen dissolves in plasma? |
only 1.5% |
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Where does hemoglobin pick up and deliver oxygen to? |
it picks up oxygen in the lungs and delivers it to the tissues |
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What is hemoglobin called when it picks up oxygen? |
oxyhemoglobin (Hb-O2) |
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What is hemoglobin called when it delivers oxygen? |
deoxyhemoglobin (Hb-H) |
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What is a hemoglobin molecule made up of? |
Each molecule has 4 heme groups. Each heme contains an iron atom (Fe2+) |
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What does iron have an affinity for? Where is this affinity greater? |
Iron has an affinity for oxygen. The affinity is greater in lungs than in tissues. |
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When is hemoglobin saturated? |
when its iron binds 4 oxygen molecules (100%) |
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When is hemoglobin unsaturated? |
if its iron has no oxygen molecules (0%) |
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What does the percent saturation refer to? |
It refers to how many irons of the hemoglobin molecule have oxygen. (25, 50, 75, or 100%) |
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What type of blood has a higher percent saturation? |
arterial blood |
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What is loading and unloading? |
*pick up of oxygen in lungs is loading *delivery of oxygen to tissues is unloading |
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What are the 5 factors in oxygen loading and unloading? |
*PO2 main factor in oxygen loading/unloading *The Bohr Effect *PCO2 *Temperature *BPG (2,3 bisphosphoglycerate) |
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What is the main factor in oxygen loading and unloading? |
Po2 |
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Higher Po2 in lungs favors what? |
*it favors loading *in lung alveoli, PO2 is high and O2 binds to hemoglobin |
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Lower Po2 in tissues favors what? |
*it favors unloading *in the tissues Po2 is low and oxyhemoglobin releases oxygen *in a resting person, nearly 25% of oxygen is unloaded |
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What is the Bohr Effect? |
Metabolic acids and CO2 lower the pH in tissues and increase oxyhemoglobin dissociation, thus favoring unloading |
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How is hemoglobin affinity affected by lower pH? |
*It has less affinity for oxygen at lower pH levels *the effect of pH in the lung's alveoli is less pronounced due to the high Po2 which favors loading |
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Higher PCo2 in the tissues favors what? How does it related to pH? |
*unloading *related to pH as follows: CO2 + H2O --> H2CO3 --> H+ + HCO3- *CO2 forms acid, thus lowering pH |
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How does temperature affect loading and unloading? |
*higher temperatures in tissues favors unloading *lower temperature in lungs favors loading |
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What is BPG (2,3 bisphosphoglycerate)? |
a metabolic intermediate from RBCs |
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What happens when BPG binds to hemoglobin? |
*When BPG binds to hemoglobin in tissue capillaries, hemoglobin loosens its grip on oxygen *more oxygen is released into tissues *causes higher metabolic rate, higher altitude, growth hormone, thyroxine, testosterone, and epinephrine increase BPG formation *favors unloading |
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What three factors favor loading? |
*higher Po2 *higher pH *lower temperature |
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What four factors favor unloading? |
*lower Po2 *lower pH *higher temperature *increased BPG |
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What causes hypoxic hypoxia? |
due to inadequate gas exchange or low pulmonary ventilation |
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What causes ischemic hypoxia? |
due to inadequate blood flow or slow pulmonary circulation |
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What causes histotoxic hypoxia? |
due to cells metabolic poisons such as cyanide |
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What causes anemic hypoxia? |
due to severe anemia |
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What are some causes of carbon monoxide poisoning? |
*carbon monoxide from car exhaust *tobacco smoke and fumes |
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What happens in hemoglobin during carbon monoxide poisoning occurs? |
*carbon monoxide binds to iron on the heme group to form carboxyhemoglobin (HbCO) *binds 210 times more strongly than oxygen *0.1% carbon monoxide binds 50% of hemoglobin |
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What is the percentage of lethal carbon monoxide? |
0.2% |
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How is carbon monoxide poisoning treated? |
by administering pure oxygen |
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What three things happen during carbon dioxide transport? |
*7% dissolves in plasma *23% becomes HbCO2 (carbaminohemoglobin) *70% is converted to bicarbonate and most bicarbonate transported in plasma as sodium bicarbonate |
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What kind of neurons are found in the medulla oblongata? |
medullary rhythmicity neurons |
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What two groups of medullary rhythmicity neurons are found in the medulla oblongata? |
*dorsal respiratory group *ventral respiratory group |
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What does the dorsal respiratory group do? |
*controls the basic rhythm of respiration *inspiration for 2 seconds, expiration for 3 seconds *auto-rhythmic cells active for 2 seconds than inactive |
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What does the ventral respiratory group do? |
*inactive during most quiet breathing *only active during forced expiration |
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What is the process of quiet breathing? |
INHALATION *dorsal respiratory group active *inspiratory muscles contract *inspiration occurs EXHALATION *dorsal respiratory group inhibited *inspiratory muscles relax *passive expiration occurs |
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What do the neurons in the pons coordinate? |
they coordinate the transition between inhalation and exhalation |
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What area stimulates inhalation? What does it result in? |
*apneustic area *results in prolonged inhalation |
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What area inhibits inhalation? When does it inhibit inhalation? |
*pneumotaxic area *inhibits inspiration before lungs can become over inflated |
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What five factors affect breathing? |
*carbon dioxide *oxygen *proprioceptors *inflation reflex (Hering-Breuer) *conscious control |
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How does carbon dioxide affect breathing? |
*increased carbon dioxide is called hypercapnia *it excites chemoreceptors in carotid arteries, aorta, and medulla oblongata and breathing rate increases |
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How does oxygen affect breathing? |
*decreased oxygen is called hypoxia *can happen at high altitudes *excites chemoreceptors and breathing rate increases |
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How do proprioceptors affect breathing? |
*muscle contraction and joint movement increase during exercise *increased stimulation of proprioceptors quickly increases breathing rate *happens as soon as you start to exercise |
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How does the inflation reflex (Hering-Breuer) affect breathing? |
*as lungs over-inflate, stretch receptors become activated *increase in nerve impulses to pons and medulla inhibits apneustic and inspiratory area *inhalation stops before lungs can be damaged |
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How does conscious control affect breathing? |
it is intentional breathing |
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What is apnea? |
temporary cessation of breathing |
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What is hyperpnea? |
rapid and deep breathing |
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What is dyspnea? |
labored, gasping breathing |
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What is orthopnea? |
labored breathing when lying down flat that is relieved by sitting up |
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What is tachypnea? |
accelerated respiration |
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What is hyperventilation? |
rapid pulmonary ventilation |
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What is hypoventilation? |
slow pulmonary ventilation |
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What is respiratory arrest? |
permanent cessation of breathing |
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What are the three types of COPDs (chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases)? |
*asthma *emphysema *chronic bronchitis |
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What is asthma? |
spasmodic bronchial constriction |
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What is emphysema? |
destruction of lung alveolar tissues |
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What is chronic bronchitis? |
inflammation of the bronchi |
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What is pneumothorax? |
air in the pleural cavity |
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What is hydrothorax? |
fluid in the pleural cavity |
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What is hemothorax? |
blood in the pleural cavity |
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What is pneumonia? |
fluid in the lungs of alveoli |
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What is atelectasis? |
collapse of the lung alveoli |
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What is lung cancer? |
squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, and small cell carcinoma |
