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78 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are the functions of the repiratory system |
pH regulation-Co2 combines with water and forms carbonate to form acid Exchange gas Protection from pathogens Conditions Air - warms air, adds water vapor, filtering out foreign material |
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Use of oxygen and what does it do with metabolites |
Oxygen is used in every cell for final electron acceptor Also the glucose metabolism produces a lot of Co2 so needs to get rid of |
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What is the difference between internal and external respiration |
Internal is cellular respiration in the mitochondria External is breathing |
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Cystic Fibrosis |
when a Cl- channel doesnt function properly, and the mucous is too viscous |
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What happens to the velocity in the broncholes |
The higher cross section area slows down which is good for diffusion but also means particles can diffuse and get stuck here |
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What makes alveoli good for exchange |
huge surface area and filled with capillaries |
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Type 1 vs Type 2 cells |
Type 1 are flat, good for gas exchange Type 2 - yellow fluffy cells that produce surfactant |
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Frog lungs vs rat lungs (mammallian) |
Frog is just a big sac and mammals have many different alvoli Mammals - smaller distance, more SA |
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Pulmonary edema |
has a small interstitum so it fills up fast, and ends up in aveoli which makes it hard to breath |
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Different Plueras |
Visceral pleura close to lunch and parietal pleura touching thoracic cavity |
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Lungs are like spandex |
When you exhale lungs expand and collapse back Lungs like to collapse when left to their own devices because of the elastin and collagen fibers
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Your thoracic likes to? |
Natural it likes to expand, but because there is interstitial fluid it makes the lungs and the chest wall together so each pulls on that little space, and fluid isnt every expandable. Which generates a negative pressure in the interstitial space |
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Boyles Law |
PV = P2V2 If volume increases there is less pressure Pressure is inversely proportional to volume |
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Transpulmonary pressure |
pressure difference between the lungs and the interstital space As you drop pressure in the lungs air will come in until the pressure gradient is gone |
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Restrictive disease |
low complience (iron bands around your ribcage |
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Obstructive lung disease |
high air way resistance, something obstructing |
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What is compliance |
the change in pressure needed to inflate the lungs to a particular volume, the ability to stretch |
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High compliance |
Emphasema Increasse compliance but also decrease recoil. |
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Low compliance |
need more change in pressure to inflate Fibrosis, you have a lot of scar tissue |
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Change in Transpulmonary pressure |
Pressure across lunch tissue Palv - Pip First breath is hard because no volume in lungs Low compliance is still doesnt like to stretch with scar tissue that cross stitch |
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Surface Tension |
Allows water particles to stick together- like beading of water on a slick window
Aveoli - the beading leads to more water accumulating and low pressure which makes them collapse. Since they are connected to the same wall when once collaspe they all do. House of cards effect |
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The Law of LaPlace |
If no surfactant the way water and air interact is the same, so they same surface tension of different radius of aveoli
Smaller bubbles collapse first, and they would blow up the bigger ones next to it
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Surfactant |
are amphiphilic so can associate with the air and water it disrupts the hydrogen binding with each other, because it causes the water to have such high affinity for each other. Prevents the beading up and it splits out into a film which makes easier for transport
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working hypothesis of why smaller aveoli less tension |
in the smaller avoeli the surfactant are closer to each other more potent which lowers the surface tension more potent. Equalizes pressure easier |
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If u of obstructive |
forceful exhalation is very hard, so folks with enphasema to breath gently to not increase resistance |
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If an alveoli has high resistance it will build up |
Increasse Pco2 and decrease Po2 Pulmonary with decrease O2 constrict instead of dilate like systemic Hypoxic vasoconstriction - if there is an alveoli that is not functioning properly, you want to use your resources better to other alveoli
If you have hypoxia everywhere then vasoconstrict everywhere and your left ventricle afterload would be very high. |
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%FEV1 |
Measure of resistance of the airways You take your force exhalation in 1 seconds divided by your total capacity.
obstructive disease would change this but restrictive you would have a normall FEV1 |
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Atmospheric pressure decreases as |
you go higher because less pressure on top of you |
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Contents of atmosphere |
PO2 is 20% at PN is 70-90% |
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When in dead space the partial pressure is dropped by 10 because |
it gets humidified, so adding water to O2 makes the pressure lower |
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Do oxygen levels fluxuate a lot? |
no because you always have functional residual capacity in your lungs (alveoli) The PA02 (alveolar) is around 105 mmHG |
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You need to start at 160mmHg to get to a 3mmHg of oxygen in mitochondrion |
pH is lower in venous blood because it produces bicarbonate |
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If you are not breathing enough for homeostasis and you are hypoventilation |
your co2 goes up and O2 goes down you build H+ and your go through acidosis
Alkandosis for opposite |
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When O2 binds to hemoglobin it is no longer exerting a partial pressure so there can be more gradient |
If we didnt have hemoglobin we would need a cardiac output of 67 L /min instead of 5 |
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At low Po2 RBC changes shape and becomes a releasing molecule |
Emphasema is both restrictive and obstructive |
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Oxy-Hemoglobin relationship |
with more Po2 there is more Hb saturation |
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The Bohr effect |
with a more acidic lower pH it has to work harder
it is sigmoid because cooperatotive binding, when more o2 bind the more it wants to bind. |
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23 DPG - glycolysis metabolite means there is a greater need for oxygen |
which also causes a right shift
Right shift means more oxygen is needed |
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CO causes a left shift |
holds on to the O2 even harder because full binding |
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How a glomus cell in coratid body works |
When you have a low P02 the Kchannels close which depolarizes the cells and Ca2+ channels open
More Ca enter cells and neurotransmitters
Hydrogen in the capillary cannot to through blood blain barrier |
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Bronchoconstricion |
when you breath something bad in you breaths become shallow so the bad thing doesnt get in |
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Amino acid determines the hemoglobin shape oxygen modulates and changes the shape to make it release instead of bind |
when there is a right shift the hemoglobin is being more generous with the oxygen because there is a local factor telling that you need more oxygen |
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hemoglobin bound to oxygen is red and blue if it is not |
Co2 is lipid soluble can readily dissolve in RBC Co2 goes in and binds to amino groups in hemoglobin (not where the oxygen binds) As o2 is leaving the cell co2 has a higher affinity to hydrogen binding Co2 doesnt saturate because we can continue to shift it to HCO2 |
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At the alveoli we are promoting the carbonic anhydrase to shift to the left so we can blow off the Co2 |
if you have local hypoxia you will end up with global hypoxia and that is dire to the right side of your heart |
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What the hell is a hormone? |
a chemical signaler secreted into the blood or intersistial fluid by on cell or group of cells and has physcioligcal control effect through a specific receptor
cytokines go intracellular so not considered a hormone, they can be called a paracrine agent |
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What are some important characteristics of hormones? |
Potent of small concentrations - because they amplify Regulate biological functions Work through receptors that are specific |
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The gene is a lot bigger then the active peptide, you make a molecule that is much bigger and inactive, there has to be post translational modification until it is biologically active |
done by cleaving some things off adding some carb groups to make a glycoprotein |
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Activation of AE produces multiple cAMP |
Tysosine Kinase doesn't need a g protein it phorylates already |
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Peptide hormones are fast acting but short lasting |
What makes 2nd messenger so fast is because it turns on a protein that is waiting when they unbind peripheral enzymes can get rid of them pretty fast
Gene transcription takes a hella long time |
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Steroids hormones interesting facts |
they are lipid so simple diffusion, which means they need to bind to a protein to travel in the blood. They have a longer half life because these protects them from enzymes
Cytoplasmic and nuclear receptors makes it easier for RNA transcrptase to find the promotor
Cortisol - can go the opposite thing, blocks promotor region so when you get a misquito bite you dont get inflammed. |
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Since steroid hormones are biochemically connected, if you have high testonerone you will also have high of everything else so if you take steriods take a aromatase or you grow |
boobs |
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Upregulation The number of the beta adrenoreceptors in response to T3 - it tells the heart to upregulate their beta receptors which increases the sensitivity to increase heart rate
Because it is saturated with ligands?
What is down regulation |
Down regulation - decreased number of receptors Decrease tissue sensitivity Down regulation of GH receptors with chronic stress - when you are young and you are stress you can down regulate the Growth hormone to save your energy for survivial. It will make u a midget |
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If you dont have a lot of ligand a cell can upregulate to see if something is out there A cell can also take in receptors if a cell is being bombared |
Upregulation can occur before more hormone release. |
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Synergism |
Combined effet is greater than the sum of indivial effects Glucagon and epinephrine |
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Permissiveness (to give permission) |
Need second hormone to get full effect Hormone A does the job Hormone B doesnt do the job but it does something that makes Hormone A to do the job. Cortisol is needed for glucagon to do its job correctly. Kushings disease too much cortisol so though are hyperglycemic |
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Thyroid hormone is lipid soluble so it goes into cell and increase gene expression for upregulation of beta receptor to increase lipolysis |
UPregulation is a major way that permissiveness occurs |
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Hypothalamus - talks to both anterior pit with portal system and post pit with an axon |
Stimulus - level of hormone Sensor - monitors hormone level Input signal - sensor sends a signal to center There are often times with endocrine cells plays more than one role Parathyroids cell is the receptor integration center and 1 more |
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Feed forward mechanism is a varible that anticipates the thing by negative feedback
Ex. Stomach stretch but you blood glucose levels have yet to gone up yet. But it will eventually so it like warns them to get going |
Negative feedback - normally it all starts in the negative thalamus |
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Pituitary looks like a ballsack and sits in a bony cavity. Posterior pituitary - embyonic extension of the hypothalamus because it is where the axons from the hypo terminate releases ADH Oxytocin
Hypo can make hormones and pack in vesicles to put it into capillary |
Axis refers to 3 systems to work together to produce something.
Hypothalmus produces releasing hormones that go through a portal system that goes to anterior pituitary
ANT Pit will produce the hormone in response to the hormone the hypo released
Then your peripheral glands will secrete the hormones |
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Typically the both the 2nd and 3rd hormone in the axis can give a negative feedback |
IGF-1 (insulin like growth factor) its a mitogen tells cells to divide before puberty is makes you grow after it just maintains your bones Growth hormones before puberty - gigantism you be like 8 ft tall after puberty - acromegaly - you dont get taller but bigger |
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Cortisol |
Hypo - receives a stress and releases Cortisol releasing hormone Ant pit - releases
Function of Cortisol it makes sure you dont lose vasoconstriction or you die inhibits inflammation so you can live before you deal with some inflammation..
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The genitalia and internal tubing are all the same early stages of the embryro, the only time the male SRY gene is expressed in the embryonic stage which leads undifferentiated cells to turn male and female structures to disappear |
Leydig cells produce testosterone which makes female structures die |
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Semineferous tubules then the epididymus (swim school) |
Prostate gland acts as a donut around the urethra so growth in it can cause increase resistance |
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There is a valve that when semen is going through it permits urine from going in |
Desending balls is important because temp being outside decreases temp but also the heated blood from artery will transfer heat to the vein leaving the scrotum |
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Spermatogonium - stem cells that can undergo mitosis (reproducing themselves that is why they are called stem cells) |
They are located at basal as they differenate they get closer to the lumen of the semiferous tubules until they turn into spermatozoa. There is no blood in the semitub so sertoli cell take care of it. There is a blood-teste barrier Leydig cell product testosterone which can simply diffuse |
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1 cell produced both FSH and LH in the ant pit, named this because endocrine studied females first |
FSH has receptor on sertoli cells, helps sperm grow and tell them to make androgen binding protein(keep testonrone local), and they also create inhibin which inhibits FSH |
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LH binds to leydig which produces testosterone, also goes to rest of body to help you grow |
At age 8 Kisspeptin makes your brain think you have less testosterone First sign of puberty in boys bigger balls, then penis |
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Progesterone normally lead to differentiation
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Endometrium is the inner layer of the uterus that is hormone sensitive |
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Endometrium gets sweeped off with menses |
Oogonia - mitotic division and producted 2-4 million oocyte
Every girl born with a limited number of oocytes and then go through mitosis and stop until you hit puberty. At puberty they fully mature a few and ovulate them, when menupause no more |
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Primordial follicles - primary follicles |
Theca cells produce androgen precursor used by granulosa cells and diffuse into granulosa cells which have aroma cells to make estrogen |
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During secondary follicle they develop fluid filled cavity called antrum it is good because it lowers diffusion distance for oxygen, and glucose to enter The whole follicle is not going to be ovulated, only the oocyte with its crown of cells (corona radiada) |
The left over follicle from ovulation gets worked on by LH to make corpus luteum |
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Menstrual phase - when endometrium gets sluffed off because no hormone to maintain it |
Proliferative phase - FSH is stimulating the follicle to produce estrogen which makes the follicle grow Also makes endometrium grow and it produces progesterone to make glycogen for the fetus |
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LH surge gives signal for ovulation |
Secretory phase - when the uterus turns into a gland |
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Progesterone negatively feedbacks producing another egg |
No ovulation with first mentuals because there isnt enough estrogen for positive feedback to cause LH spike for ovulation |
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Estrogen does not directly affect the hypothalamus Estrogen affects kiss peptin |
Estrogen low it increases GnRH When estrogen is medium and increasing there is still negative feedback but it affects kiss peptin neuron to decrease GnRH When estrogen is very high we set off positive feedback which increases GnRH because it activates another neuron that releases kiss peptin
Most of the follicular phase the system works on a negative feedback 1-2 days before ovulation it switches to positive feedback |
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Progesterone makes the uterine become a exocrine gland which excretes glycogen on top of the endothial so u get a build up (secretory phase) also cases smooth muscle relaxation in case implantation occurs |
progesterone inhibit ovulation and follicle formation
by introducing exogenous estrogen you dont produce enough estrogen endogenously to get a spike in GnRH activing that 2nd thing |
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Iodination make thes molecule more lipid soluable so T4 is more and has a higher half life |
What does testosterone do on the body increase muscle mass, deepens voice, |
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if you take a steroid you gotta take a enzyme inhibitor or else you grow boobs and such. |
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