Respiratory

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Respiratory system

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Filtering particulate matter from the air. This is largely accomplished by hairs in the nasal passage and mucous that is produced by glands and goblet cells.
Conducting air from the nasal cavity to the alveoli of the lungs where gas is exchanged.
Sense of smell is localized to a specialized epithelium in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Speech occurs in the larynx as the vocal cords open, close and vibrate.

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Almost all of the respiratory tract is covered by

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pseudostraified columnar epithelium

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Ciliated cells

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moves mucous

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Goblet cells

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create mucous

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Small granule cells are

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endocrine cells

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brush cells are

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sensoryt

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basal cells

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stem cell population

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Conducting: conducts, moistens & filters air

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nasal cavity, nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi bronchioles, terminal bronchioles

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Respiratory: gas exchange

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respiratory bronchioles, alveolar duct, alveolar sacs, alveoulus

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nasal cavity:Vestibule

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Contains vibrissae (short hairs) to filter out large particles.
Lined by nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium that changes to respiratory epithelium

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Conchae

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turbinates: whirls of mucosa-covered bone that project into the nasal cavity.

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Immediately deep to the epithelium is a lamina propria that connects

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bone

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upper third of the nasal cavity is lined by

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olfactory epithelium, a variation on the typical respiratory epithelium where the sense of smell is located.

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Defining characteristics of olfactory epithelium:

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Extremely thick layer of pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
A lot of nerve tissue comprising the olfactory nerves.
Olfactory (Bowman’s) glands – glands in the lamina propria that releases a serous fluid to dissolve and bind oderant molecules.

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Olfactory cells:

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bipolar sensory nerve cells with an apical projection (olfactory vesicle) sprouting modified cilia

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Olfactory cilia:

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very long, nonmotile cilia that extend over the olfactory epithelium surface. Function as odor receptors.

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Supporting cells of olfactory

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most numerous, have apically located nuclei with many microvilli.

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Brush cells of olfactory

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sensory cells same as before

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Basal cells

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contact the basal lamina and do not extend to surface. Stem cells for other cell types

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The epiglottis is at the junction between the

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oral cavity and larynx

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Epliglottis has both

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stratified squamous (oral) and respiratory (larynx) epithelium covering a core of elastic cartilage with many muco-serous glands in the lamina propria.

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The larynx consists of

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of several cartilages that open and close the airway. You will see two folds facing the airway, the false (vestibular) fold and the true vocal fold.

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space between true and false chord help create

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resonance

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false fold has respiratory epithelium covering somewhat

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loose connective tissue w adipocytes

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The true fold has

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has stratified squamous epithelium covering a core of dense connective tissue

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Stratified squamous epithelium is a normal feature in

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in high-impact regions of the respiratory tract, such as the true focal fold.

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prolonged, violent coughing and irritation can cause the respiratory epithelium elsewhere to undergo

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metaplasia into stratified squamous epithelium.

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Trachea: mucosa

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Respiratory epithelium
Lamina propria (small glands & elastic fibers)
Muscularis

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Trachea has

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submucosa glands, cartilage, adventitia

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C-shaped hyaline cartilages hold the

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airways open

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open end C cartilage is bridged by a sheet of

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smooth muscle and fibroelastic connective tissue

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Ciliated cells sweep the mucous towards the

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oropharynx to be swallowed or expectorated.

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All bronchi are lined by

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respiratory epithelium with goblet cells and seromucous glands.

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bronchi contain

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spiral smooth muscle bundles – muscularis

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asthma

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Excessive constriction of bronchiolar smooth muscle. Associated with difficult air expiration, mucus accumulation in airways, & inflammatory cell infiltration. Often progressive & associated with allergic reactions since allergens can cause mast cell release of histamine & heparin.

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asthma treated w

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smooth muscle relaxants such as epinephrine & isoproterenol

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bronchi almost identical to the

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trachea

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primary bronchus delivers air to each lung and then splits

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secondary and tertiary

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walls of the bronchi have a substantial amount of

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smooth muscle that regulates their diameter

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bronchi progress into the lungs the cartilage rings

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become irregular plates

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Bronchioles

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Respiratory epithelium but as the passageways get smaller, the epithelium becomes more cuboidal.

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Bronciholes lack

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glands and cartilage plates but all have sm muscle in walls

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Goblet cells in broncioles

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slowly disappear and bronchiolar exocrine cells appear in small passages until all goblets gone

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prolonged irritation to airways make

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goblet cells which produce thick mucous though small airways

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bronchiolar exocrine cells also called

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clara cells

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clara cells are

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Non-ciliated, domed, cuboidal cells that line the bronchioles.
Secrete glycosaminoglycans that prevent collapse of the smaller airways and release ions into the lumen.

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Cystic fibrosis

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A disease in which the mucous in the airways (and other organs) is abnormally thick and viscous. Caused by a mutation in the CTFR gene that encodes a Cl- pump. The lack of chloride ions in the airway also creates a lack of H20, which normally follows the ions osmotically. This makes the mucous thick, increasing the rate of infections and potentially asphyxiating the patient.

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Terminal bronchioles

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Like larger bronchioles, they lack glands and cartilage plates but do contain smooth muscle.

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Term bronchiole epithilium

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simple cuboidal w/o goblet cells unless their irritated

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After terminal bronch

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gas exchange area

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Respiratory bronchioles

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simple cuboidal lining of ciliated and bronchial exocrine cells, sm muscle and elastic fibers seen w alveoli interrupting

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Passage way for respiratory bronchioles

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alveolar ducts

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Alveolar ducts lined by

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simple squamos of typ I and II pneumocytes, NO more cilliated or bronchial exocrine cells and LAST sm muscle area

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Alveoli

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terminal area for O2 and CO2 gas exchange to happen between air an dblood

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alveoli have very thin

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walls w elastic and reticular fibers

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Alveoli seperated from each other by

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by interalveolar septa that contain alveolar pores for pressure equalization between alveol

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Type I pneumocytes

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40% of pneumocyte population but they cover ~ 95% of alveolar surface.

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Type I properties

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simple squamos, very flat, allows gas exchange in cytoplasm, unable to divide

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Type II pneumocytes

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These cuboidal cells are 60% of pneumocyte population but only 5% of alveolar surface area.

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Type II properties

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can divide and regenerate both pneumocytes!Contain lamellar bodies which are released as pulmonary surfactant. Surfactant reduces surface tension to facilitate expansion during inspiration and prevent collapse in expiration

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Interalveolar Septa

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Contain continuous capillaries that exchange O2 from the alveoli for CO2 from the blood.

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Blood-Gas barrier

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Thinnest regions are 0.2 µm or less in thickness.
Three layers:
Type I pneumocyte and surfactant layer
Basal lamina of pneumocytes & capillary endothelial cells fuse
Capillary endothelium

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Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome

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Occurs in premature infants who lack adequate amounts of surfactant. Type II pneumocytes do not produce it until the 35th week of gestation.

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fixing NRDS

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Difficulty expanding the alveoli because of high surface tension.
Can be treated before birth by administering glucocorticoids to induce surfactant synthesis. Artificial surfactant can be given after birth.

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Alveolar macrophages

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Alveolar macrophages are phagocytic, they clean up ultra-fine debris from the alveolar spaces and elsewhere in the airway.

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full alveolar macrophages

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migrate into the lumen and are transported up the “mucociliary escalator” to the pharynx.

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Emphysema

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Destruction of respiratory spaces in the lungs. As respiratory spaces lose their elasticity they expand and lose surface area. Eventually they are unable to adequately recoil during expiration.