Research - Week 10

Front 1

Characteristics of Qualitative Research - general pointers

Back 1

Qualitative data has the natural setting as the direct source of data, and the research is the key instrument.

Qualitative research is descriptive

Qualitative researchers are concerned with process rather than with outcomes or products.(looking at the 'how' and 'why')

Qualitative researchers tend to use inductive reasoning to analyze their data.

Meaning is of essential concern to the qualitative approach.

Front 2

______ and _____are necessary in order to determine the interpretation of the narratives and takes a while to collect the data in general. What kind of study exemplifies this?

Back 2

Time and patience
For example: Ethnography studies: 18 months + bc you need to integrate yourself into the community. You need to increase trust and become acquainted with the area

Front 3

Characteristics of Qualitative Research - listed items

Back 3

- Flexible, elastic
- Holistic
- Intense researcher involvement
- Ongoing analysis of the data helps to determine when the field work is done
- Bricolage: merging various data collection strategies

Front 4

What is bricolage?

Back 4

merging various data collection strategies (qualitative research)
This is also a form of data triangulation --> using multiple data collection strategies

Front 5

When are personal biases noted?

Back 5

At the beginning of the study because you need to be conscious about them throughout the study.

Front 6

Advance Planning and Activities in Qualitative Studies
Which two things do you really need to identify (2)?

Back 6

Selecting a research tradition
Selecting a study site
Identifying GATEKEEPERS, GAINING ENTREE
Identifying needed equipment for the field
Analyzing personal biases

Front 7

Typical Phases in Qualitative Design (3)

Back 7

Orientation and overview—getting a handle on what is salient about a phenomenon

Focused exploration—in-depth exploration of the phenomenon

Confirmation and closure—efforts to ascertain trustworthiness of the findings

Front 8

What is a paradigm?

Back 8

The lens in which you are conducting your research

Front 9

The theoretical foundations of qual research use WHAT to guide research?

Back 9

paradigms

Front 10

What is the most used approach in qual research?

Back 10

Most qualitative researchers use a PHENOMENOLOGICAL approach, which is the basis for most research in this area.

Front 11

What are the four theoretical foundations?

Back 11

Phenomenological Perspective
Symbolic Interaction/Grounded theory
Culture
Ethnomethodology

Front 12

Qualitative research traditions (6)?

Back 12

Anthropology (Domain: Culture)
Ethnography; Ethnoscience

Philosophy (Domain: Lived Experience)
Phenomenology; Hermeneutics

Psychology (Domain: Behavior)
Ethology; Ecological psychology

Sociology (Domain: Social Settings)
Grounded theory; Ethnomethodology

Sociolinguistics (Domain: Communication)
Discourse analysis

History (Domain: Past Events, Conditions)
Historical research

Front 13

Anthropology
- Domain?
- two research relevant approaches

Back 13

Culture
- ethnography
-ethnoscience

Front 14

Philosophy
- Domain?
- two research relevant approaches

Back 14

Lived experience
- phenomenology, hermeneutics

Front 15

Psychology
- Domain?
- two research relevant approaches

Back 15

Behaviour
- ethology
- ecological psychology

Front 16

Sociology
- Domain?
- two research relevant approaches

Back 16

Social setting
- grounded theory
- ethnomethodology

Front 17

Sociolinguistics
- Domain?
- two research relevant approaches

Back 17

Communication
- discourse analysis

Front 18

History
- Domain?
- two research relevant approaches

Back 18

Past events, conditions
- historical research

Front 19

What is ethnography and the 4 types? What is the assumption we take on with this approach?

Back 19

Describes and interprets cultural behavior

Types of ethnography:
Macroethnography (broadly defined cultures)
Microethnography (narrowly defined cultures)
Autoethnography (insider research)
Ethnonursing research

Relies on extensive, labor-intensive fieldwork
Culture is inferred from the group’s words, actions, and products

Assumption: Cultures guide the way people structure their experiences

Front 20

What is an emic perspective? which approach does it fall under?

Back 20

insiders' view of the culture = ethnography

Front 21

Does ethnography rely on a wide range of data sources? can they be quant too?

Back 21

yes, yes (for example, demographics can be used, however the data primarily used is descriptive)

Front 22

What is the ultimate goal of an ethnographic study?

Back 22

An in-depth, holistic portrait of the culture under study

Front 23

Phenomenology - what is it focusing on?
What are the 4 aspects? Do you want to try and follow all four at the same time?

Back 23

Focuses on the description and interpretation of people’s lived experience

Asks: What is the ESSENCE of a phenomenon and what does it mean?

Acknowledges people’s physical ties to their world: Being-in-the-world

- lived space
- lived body
- lived time
- lived human relation
No, you want to only understand one of these - one question followed by probes.

Front 24

Key words: essence, being in the world - are tied to which qualitative approach?

Back 24

phenomenology

Front 25

What does essence mean?

Back 25

small phrase that describes the entire phenomena - developed from the participant's words

Front 26

How does one acquire phenomenological based info? Main data source so to speak

Back 26

Main data source: In-depth conversations with participants who have experienced the phenomenon

Front 27

Descriptive phenomenology
- describes?
- based on?
- steps?

Back 27

Describes human experience

Based on philosophy of Husserl

Steps: Bracketing, Intuiting, Analyzing, Describing

Bracketing (identifying, holding in abeyance preconceived views) may involve maintaining a reflexive journal

Front 28

What is bracketing? which approach is it for?

Back 28

Bracketing (identifying, holding in abeyance preconceived views) may involve maintaining a REFLEXIVE JOURNAL

descriptive phenomenology
Bracketing: pretend you know nothing about the research topic. You use a reflexive journal to note down what you thought and how you felt. If the emotions are seen to seep through you do not manipulate or analyse that set of data. *you know how to do CPR but you still ask the participant to expand on that

Front 29

Interpretive phenomenology
- emphasis on?
- based on?
- can you use supplementary data sources?

Back 29

Emphasis on interpreting and understanding experience, not just describing it

Based on philosophy of Heidegger: Heideggerian hermeneutics

Bracketing does not occur

YES = Supplementary data sources: texts, artistic expressions

Front 30

Which approach uses supplementary data sources?

Back 30

interpretive phenomenology

Front 31

Does bracketing occur in interpretive phenomenology?

Back 31

no

Front 32

Does bracketing occur in descriptive phenomenology?

Back 32

yes

Front 33

Grounded theory
- focuses on?
- theoretical roots?
- originally developed by who?

Back 33

Focuses on the discovery of a basic social psychological problem that a defined group of people experience

Elucidates social psychological processes and social structures

Has theoretical roots in symbolic interactionism

Originally developed by sociologists Glaser and Strauss

Front 34

Grounded theory
- primary data sources?

Back 34

Primary data sources: In-depth interviews and observations

Front 35

T/F - Data collection, data analysis, sampling does not occur simultaneously for grounded theory

Back 35

Data collection, data analysis, sampling DOES occur simultaneously for grounded theory

Front 36

____ used to develop and refine theoretically relevant categories.

Back 36

Constant comparison

Front 37

What are 2 alternative views of grounded theory?

Back 37

Glaser and Strauss (generation of explanatory theory linking related concepts)

Strauss and Corbin (full conceptual description)

Front 38

Two types of grounded theory

Back 38

Substantive theory—grounded in data on a specific substantive topic

Grounded formal theory—a higher, more abstract level of theory based on substantive grounded theory studies

Therefore:
-Substantive = develop a theory on a specific topic
- Grounded formal = High level abstract theory

Front 39

Critical theory research:

Back 39

Concerned with a critique of existing social structures and with envisioning new possibilities
Use our current research and expand on it with the new research. --> make recommendations to stakeholders on how to progress

Front 40

Feminist research:

Back 40

Focuses on how gender domination and discrimination shape women’s lives and their consciousness

Front 41

Participatory action research (PAR):

Back 41

Produces knowledge through close collaboration with groups or communities that are vulnerable to control or oppression

Front 42

What are the two ways to collect qualitative data?

Back 42

1. Interviews
2. Observation
*Triangulation

Front 43

Two kinds of interviews

Back 43

informal (meet participants but trying to establish a rapport) and formal (taking notes and auto-recorded)

Front 44

What are the 4 types of formal interviews

Back 44

1. unstructured
2. semi-structured
3. structured
4. group

Front 45

When do you take field notes during informal interviewing?

Back 45

after the interview; there are no actual 'notes'

Front 46

And analysis have a time sequence?

Back 46

yes!

Front 47

What is the goal of unstructured interviewing?

Back 47

To get people to open up on their own terms and at their own pace
Clear plan and focus, but with minimum control over informant responses
Good when you have lots of time and multiple interviews with the same person

Front 48

When do you take field notes and regular notes during formal unstructured interviewing? Tape recorded - unstructured interviewing

Back 48

notes during; field notes afterwards
no tape recorder

Front 49

What is the goal of semi-structured interviewing?

Back 49

Interview guide:
Built from informal and unstructured interviews, and/or literature review
Written list of questions with probes
Questions covered in a particular order (if possible)

Front 50

When do you use semi-structured interviewing?

Back 50

when you have limited time with your informant

Front 51

When do you take field notes and regular notes during formal unstructured interviewing? Tape recorded? - semi structured

Back 51

Notes during; fieldnotes after.
Tape recorded, transcribed

Front 52

What is the goal of structured interviewing?

Back 52

Interview schedule with identical set of stimuli.
Built from informal and unstructured interviews, and/or literature review

Front 53

When do you take field notes and regular notes during formal unstructured interviewing? Tape recorded? - structured

Back 53

Notes during; fieldnotes after.
Tape recorded, transcribed

Front 54

What is the goal of group interviewing?

Back 54

Interview Guide
Built from informal and unstructured interviews, and/or literature review

Front 55

When do you take field notes and regular notes during formal unstructured interviewing? Tape recorded? - group

Back 55

Facilitator: Notes during, fieldnotes after
Observer: fieldnotes during, and after
Tape recorded, transcribed (Include speakers names)

Front 56

Silent probe:

Back 56

Wait for the informant to fill in the space

Front 57

Echo probe:

Back 57

“I see, so you say that you felt “overwhelmed”. Then what happened?”

Front 58

Neutral probe:

Back 58

“Uh-huh.”

Front 59

Tell-me-more probe:

Back 59

“Could you tell me more/speak more about….”

Front 60

Question Probe:

Back 60

Ask a direct question

Front 61

Probing by leading:

Back 61

“What do you think about…? This may sound obvious, but…”

Front 62

Redirecting:

Back 62

“That’s very interesting. Could you go back to…”

Front 63

Baiting:

Back 63

Hint at something

Front 64

Methods of Qualitative Research (4), what are they? +1 bonus

Back 64

Qualitative methodologies are research procedures that enable the investigator to produce data.
Methods:
Observation
Participant observation
Ethnomethodology
Document study

In-depth interviewing is also a qualitative research method.

Front 65

One of the primary methods of qual study: observation. what are the four things one must do when using 'observation'? How can you add in researcher triangulation with an observation method?

Back 65

Serve a research purpose
Be planned systematically
Be recorded systematically
Be subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability

Researcher triangulation - using two researchers are doing observations at the same time in order to establish rigor

Front 66

Value and purpose of observation (where is it collected and what kind of approach does it take?)

Back 66

Values and Purposes
Observational data are collected in a naturalistic setting.
It is a discovery-oriented approach carried out in the field.

Front 67

What are the 3 main purposes for collecting observational data?

Back 67

To provide descriptors of behavior
To record situational behavior
To study a topic that lends itself to this method

Front 68

What are the two types of methods of observation?

Back 68

Relatively unstructured
Structured

Front 69

Discuss the 'relatively unstructured' method of observation

Back 69

The investigator attempts to get DIRECTLY involved in the situation and to describe it as NON SELECTIVELY as possible.

May involve being a participant observer, using a digital camcorder or recorder, using specimen records, and recording anecdotes.

Generally lead to problems of reliability, observer bias, and memory distortion.

Should be used to generate rather than to test hypotheses.

Front 70

Should a 'relatively unstructured' method of observation be used to generate rather than to test hypotheses?

Back 70

yes

Front 71

Problems that can arise from a 'relatively unstructured' method of observation?

Back 71

reliability, observer bias, and memory distortion.

Front 72

Discuss the 'structured' method of observation

Back 72

The investigator codes or categorizes the observed behaviors of the program participants.

More formal methods used to observe behavior and to set up or test hypotheses.

The investigator is able to select activities to observe before they occur and can plan a systematic recording of observations.

There are several ways to record this type of information: duration, continuous, frequency-count, and interval.

Front 73

Should a 'structured' method of observation be used to generate rather than to test hypotheses?

Back 73

No - that's mainly unstructured

Front 74

The investigator is able to select activities to observe before they occur and can plan a systematic recording of observations. - which method of observation?

Back 74

structured

Front 75

What are the several ways an investigator can record structured observational information

Back 75

duration, continuous, frequency-count, and interval

Front 76

Is the Hawthorne effect ever eliminated?

Back 76

Hawthorne effect is eliminated the longer you are within the experimental environment

Front 77

Program aspects that should be observed in order to get a comprehensive view of that program: (5)

Back 77

Program setting
Program activities and participant behaviors
Informal interactions and unplanned activities
Nonverbal communication
Unobtrusive measures

Front 78

Investigators should prepare their own forms when they are conducting an observation based intervention - can they reuse the same form for every time an observation takes place?

Back 78

No. Each time an observation takes place, a new form is required.

Front 79

Do you need to have research triangulation all throughout the entire session of research?

Back 79

No. Research triangulation for a set of specific weeks is acceptable to establish rigour - you do not need to have it throughout the entire session

Front 80

discuss: Participant observation
What does 'go native' mean?

Back 80

Involves the collection of data in the field that combines document analysis; interviewing of respondents and informants; and direct participation, observation, and introspection.
The participant observer becomes part of the setting and “goes native”.
Researchers can be totally involved in the setting or be a partial participant.
The participant observer must disregard her or his own values because they might cause the participant observer to become emotionally involved with the group.
He or she must share experiences of the group but cannot become totally involved because some sort of detachment must be retained in order to accurately report the observations.

Front 81

In particiapant observation, the researcher must be totally involved in the setting

Back 81

Not necessarily. Researchers can be totally involved in the setting or be a partial participant.

Front 82

What can validate observations in a study?

Back 82

interviews (med cart example)

Front 83

What is the goal of participant-observation?

Back 83

Embed/contextualize interviews, field notes and other micro data in larger macro realm

Front 84

Four types of participant-observation situations:
*most likely not going to be on the final

Back 84

Complete participant
Participant as observer
Observer as participant
Complete observer

Front 85

Advantages to participant observation:

Back 85

The ability of the process to EXPLORE a theory or a type of measurement.

It allows investigators to gain ACCESS to subjects or data where it might not otherwise be feasible.

It offers the possibility of obtaining a RICHNESS of data.

EXPLORE, ACCESS, RICHNESS

Front 86

Disadvantages to participant observation:

Back 86

The ETHICAL element, especially when no one under study is apprised of the investigation.

The possibility that the participant observer will become too EMOTIONALLY involved, lose objectivity in reporting, and then later provide personal interpretation to the data.

The reliance on the participant observer’s MEMORY to recall all aspects of the events that occurred.

ETHICAL, EMOTIONAL, MEMORY

Front 87

5 special concerns pertain to participant observation
What are they?

Back 87

(1) Selecting the problem
(2) Choosing the setting for participant observation
(3) Establishing social relationships with the subjects
(4) Finding informants
(5) Establishing rapport with the subjects

Front 88

Ways in which a participant observer may establish rapport:

Back 88

Be unobtrusive
Be honest
Be unassuming
Be a reflective listener
Be self-revealing

Recognize what your role is and try not to influence the environment in anyway

Front 89

What is ethnomethodology?

Back 89

Theoretical foundation - qual research uses paradigms to guide research

Is the study of methods used in everyday, commonplace, and routine social activities.

An organizational study of a person’s knowledge of his or her ordinary affairs, or of his or her own organized enterprises, where that knowledge is treated by investigators as part of the same setting that it also makes orderable.

Not an alternative methodology aimed at a more effective solution of traditionally formulated problems.

Is not a research method per se, but rather it is a method to attempt to find out how people make sense out of ordinary situations in which they live.

Front 90

Is ethnomethodology a research method?

Back 90

Is not a research method per se, but rather it is a method to attempt to find out how people make sense out of ordinary situations in which they live.

Front 91

Ethnomethodology is an alternative methodology aimed at a more effective solution of traditionally formulated problems.
True or false?

Back 91

false

Front 92

Advantages to Ethnomethodology:

Back 92

It studies NON VERBAL as well as VERBAL behavior.

It is LONGITUDINAL because it is ongoing, and changes in behavior can be viewed over a long period of time.

This type of study can provide INSIGHT into what and why people think about commonplace activities and behaviors.

NON VERBAL + VERBAL, LONGITUDINAL, INSIGHT, PROCESS-ORIENTED

Front 93

Disadvantages to Ethnomethodology:

Back 93

This type of study involves investigating the process of HOW something occurs, rather than the product of that occurrence.

Does not lend itself to large-scale studies but is better for process-oriented, SMALLER investigations.

HOW NOT PRODUCT, NOT LARGE SCALE

Front 94

What is an Indexical Expression? (Ethnomethodology)

Back 94

Situation-specific words and/or phrases whose meanings change from situation to situation and may depend upon who is uttering the word or to whom the remarks are directed.

Examples: she, we, he, you, here, there, no, this, that, it, I, then, soon, today, tomorrow

These words have varying meanings, dependent upon the context.

Front 95

What do Ethnomethodologists seek?

Back 95

Ethnomethodologists seek to find the rules that govern behavior.

Attempts to find out why the respondent answers in particular ways

Conversation and interaction are regulated by rules or norms.

Ethnomethodologists discover how sense is made out of the structuring and ordering of indexicals.

The rules by which meanings are explicated remain objective, constant, and nonproblematic.

Front 96

What is a Document Study?

Back 96

Valuable source of information

Can enable the researcher to view other questions not previously considered, to follow up on observations, participant observation, or ethnomethodological research.

Front 97

What are 3 types of document studies?

Back 97

Internal documents
External communication
Personnel records

Front 98

Techniques of Collecting Qualitative Data (5)

Back 98

Field notes
Subjects’ written words
Personal documents
Photography
Official statistics (lend credibility to the data)

Front 99

What are fieldnotes? Where are they recorded? what do they record?

Back 99

Salient observations during participant-observation or during interviews

Recorded in a journal
Recorded daily or after each interaction

Observations of the environment, non-verbal communication, and related events

Observations include SELF-REFLEXIVITY:
the researcher’s own reactions, insights, ideas, questions and evolving understanding of the topic

Front 100

When you analyse your data what are you looking for?
How long does it take to analyse your data?

Back 100

themes and patterns; months

Front 101

Suggestions for constructing hypotheses and recognizing themes:

Back 101

Read the notes carefully
Construct typologies
Read the relevant literature
Code important conversation topics

Front 102

Investigators must develop a _______ _______ by which to organize and assemble the data.

Back 102

coding mechanism

Front 103

What is the difference between descriptive and explanatory codes?

Back 103

Descriptive codes do not require interpretation but indicate a class of phenomenon in the notes.

Explanatory codes indicate where patterns or themes have emerged.

Front 104

How many items to be considered when creating and determining coding subsections.

Back 104

10

Front 105

Analyzing Qualitative Data - data organization (4 steps)

Back 105

1. Number all the pages
2. Begin coding the data with a specific method
3. Go through the data and mark each paragraph with the coding category
4. sort the data

Front 106

What are the two primary reasons for analyzing data?

Back 106

hypothesis construction and recognition of themes

Front 107

The Qualitative Analysis Process (4)

Back 107

Comprehending
Synthesizing
Theorizing
Recontextualizing

Front 108

Tasks in Qualitative Data Management and Organization (4)

Back 108

Transcribing the data
Developing a categorization scheme
Coding qualitative data
Organizing qualitative data
- Manual methods of organization
- Computerized methods of organization

Front 109

Do you ever have to calculate quasi-stats when analysing QUAL research?

Back 109

in some cases yes!

Front 110

T/F

Timelines are not important especially when looking at the 'how' aspect of things

Back 110

false - they are important

Front 111

Validate: always done in _________ (which kind of approach) by member checking - you go back to the people you interviewed and ask them to verify if what you found resonates with them (form of triangulation)

Back 111

phenomenology

Front 112

Establishing Rigor - what is it How is it done?

Back 112

Trustworthiness of the study findings

Credibility: the researcher ensures likely, reliable, plausible and realistic findings were obtained.

Done through:
Prolonged Engagement
Persistent Observation
Triangulation
Peer debriefing
Negative case analysis
Member-checking

Front 113

T/F - The longer you are involved in the study the more likely you are to capture irregularities

Back 113

T

Front 114

Big T truth =
Little T truth =

Back 114

always holds true
does not always hold true

Front 115

Triangulation - what is it?

Back 115

Validation of data
Data
Methods
Theory

Ultimately it Increases the validity and credibility of the study