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38 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Important Terms |
a. Research strategy: general plan of attack
b. Research design: specific tactics used to carry out strategy c. Choice of strategy depends on purpose of research NB: Research strategy should be selected before choosing specific research design |
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Three Major Research Strategies |
a. Quantitative research (objective)
b. Qualitative research (subjective b/c involves perspective) c. Mixed-methods research |
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Quantitative Research |
a. Results are presented as quantities
b. The formal, objective, systematic process in wh/ numerical data are used as evidence to test hypotheses, refine theories, and advance knowledge and practice (More objective) |
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Understanding the Concept of Variables in Empirical Research |
a. Variable: a measurable characteristic that can have more than one value – something that is changed in an experiment
b. Constant: an unchanging characteristic, eg: height and weight c. Examples: -Stimulus Characteristics: tone intensity -Environ Conditions: background noise level -Speech Behavior: rate of speech -Language Performance: mlu |
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Independent Variables |
a. Conditions that cause change in behavior
b. Presumed to be the cause of the dependent variable, the presumed effect c. Example – Study to investigate daily caloric intake and body weight – est. r’ship -caloric intake (b/c it will change outcome) |
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a
Dependent Variables |
a. Behavior that is changed (as a result of the independent variable)
b. Example – Study to investigate daily caloric intake and body weight – est. r’ship -weight (b/c it will be changed by caloric intake) |
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aa
Nuisance or Extraneous Variables |
a. Variables that might mediate the r’ship b/w IVs and DVs
b. Potential to confound outcome c. Example – Study to investigate daily caloric intake and body weight – est. r’ship -forgot to give snacking or exercise instructions b/c didn’t predict them NB: NV can become CV |
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aaa
Control Variable |
a. Extraneous variables that are recognized and kept constant to minimize their effects on the outcome
b. Example – Study to investigate daily caloric intake and body weight – est. r’ship -gave snack and exercise instructions |
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aaaa
Science Experiments Use |
a. Independent variables – the one factor that is changed by the person doing the experiment
b. Dependent variables – the factor wh/ is measured in the experiment c. Constant/Controlled – all factors that stay same in the experiment |
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aaaaa
Birdy Example |
a. Imagine you want to c what color bird feeder your local birds prefer
b. IV: color of feeders c. DV: amount of seed eaten d. CV: everything else is kept the same, eg: location of feeders, kind of feeder used, food in feeders, time feeders are put out e. See Slide for Picture on top of pg. 4 |
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b
Relationship b/w IVs and DVs in Tx Research |
a. IVs are differing conditions (tx vs placebo) to which you expose subjects or characteristics the subjects bring into research situation
b. DVs are response or outcome variable |
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Active and Attribute Variables |
a. Active Variable – any variable that can be manipulated
b. Attribute Variable – variables that are traits or characteristics of the subjects (eg: sex and race) NB: An IV experimental research is active while IV in descriptive research is an attribute |
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bbb
Continuous and Categorical Variables |
a. Continuous: a variable that may be measured along some continuum or dimension that reflects at least the rank ordering of values or numerical values of variable (eg: stuttering frequency)
b. Categorical: diff values of variable can be categorized or named (eg: stutterer vs non-stutterer) |
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bbbb
Experimental Research (Quantitative) |
a. Experimenters manipulate a variable (IV) and observe effects of manipulation on behavior (DV) → important diff b/w correlational and experimental research is that IV is NOT manipulated in correlational research (eg: r’ship b/w noise level and concentration)
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bbbbb
Relationships vs Causal Relationships (Causation) |
a. If changes in one variable (DV) occur reliably right after experimenter manipulates another variable (IV), one can conclude that the manipulation is causing the changes → establishing a causal r’ship
b. If measures two variables w/o manipulating anything, one can discuss a r’ship but not a causal r’ship c. Example: R’ship b/w noise level and concentration abilities – study can be set up in diff ways, depending on what you’re looking at/for (eg: concentration at Panera vs. Dunkin w/ varying degrees of noise levels) |
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c
Correlational vs Experimental Set-Up |
a. Correlational (descriptive research): measuring noise level of diff places, giving people a task that requires concentration (IV: noise level, DV: performance)
b. Experimental: manipulate noise level (DV: performance) NB: Making causal statements are only possible in Experimental Research, b/c you need manipulating to say one caused the other, which isn’t available in correlational/descriptive research |
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cc
Control or Extraneous Variables |
a. Extraneous Variables: all variables other than those I am interested in for purpose of my research (eg: Noise Research Example: age, sex, temp, time of day, hunger – all these can influence results and forgot to consider them)
b. To control, we keep values of extraneous variables as similar as possible across diff values/levels of IV (Conditions: noisy vs quiet) NB: If things are similar across conditions, u can’t “blame” effect on anything other than IV, which is what you want to be the case |
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ccc
Confounding Variables |
a. An extraneous variable that differs systematically across conditions or groups
b. You think of these before hand and try to control as many as possible. IF the things you did forget were comparable across groups, you’re ok, but if it affects results of study it’s a confounding variable c. Example – experiment on effectiveness of cognitive psychotherapy for treating depression: -IV: did they receive tx or not? -DV: amt of improvement after tx (have to test before and after) -EV: some might be taking meds and some aren’t – messes up data -CV: if distribution of EV is highly uneven, we have confounding variable |
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cccc
Limitations of Experiments |
a. Sometimes u can’t do experiment b/c u can’t manipulate IV for practical or ethical reasons (eg: diff in kindness to strangers can depend on culture of individuals being observed – OR – need aphasia PTs but can’t hit them on the head to check effects!)
b. Sometimes controlling EV means creating situations that are artificial (eg: want to do experiment on effect of smile but manufacturing in observation room is artificial b/c you’d need to show them pics of people smiling) |
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ccccc
Descriptive Research |
a. Doesn't involve manipulation of an active IV but involves observation of relationship b/w attribute IVs and DVs
b. Researcher = passive observer c. Does not lead to formulation of cause-effect statements - you can just say "there's a relationship between the two" |
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d
Descriptive Research (Continued) |
a. Appropriate when the researcher is interested in behaviors as they occur naturally w/o interference of an experimenter (ie. when ethical concern forbids experimental studies)
b. The IVs of descriptive research are typically attribute variables that can't be manipulated |
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dd
Different Strategies for Descriptive Research |
a. Developmental research
b. Correlational research c. Survey research |
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ddd
Developmental Research |
a. Used to measure changes in behavior or characteristics of people over time, usually to examine influence of maturation or aging (ie: track child development)
b. Different developmental plans of observation: (stimes people combine) --> cross sectional & longitudinal |
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dddd
Cross-Sectional |
a. go to town and select a number of kids in a certain grade, collect data, and compare results.
b. Not truly developmental though cause you're not watching same kids over time, just comparing diff kids over diff stages in their lives |
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ddddd
Longitudinal |
a. follow same set of subjects over period of time
b. downside: expense, time consuming and the longer you do a study the higher likelihood you have of attrition. c. good side: real observation and follow up |
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e
Correlational Research |
a. study relationship b/w two or more variables by examining degree to which changes in one variable correspond w/ or can be predicted from variations in another (study r'ship b/w two, don't says cause/effect).
b. consider: Strength and direction of correlation and regression analysis to predict expected outcome c. disadvantage: no causal statement; difficulty interpreting results at times |
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ee
Survey Research: |
a. Used to provide detailed inspection of the prevalence of conditions, practices, or attitudes in a given environment by asking people about them (ie: dietary habits, sports, interest
b. Instruments: questionnaires and interviews (q is more common, esp for surface level questions of larger audience) c. Problems: sample bias in return rate (some have higher return rate than others - when rate is low, concern is not representative responses b/c only got back from so few), accuracy/veracity of responses (eg: females will lie about how much they eat) |
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eee
Qualitative Research |
a. Aimed at gaining a deep understanding of a specific organization or event & testing my hypothesis, rather than surface description of a large sample of population (wh/ separates it from descriptive/ quantitative)
b. Qualitative research aims to get a better understanding through first hand experience, truthful reporting, and quotations of actual conversations c. It aims to understand how the participants derive meaning from their surroundings, and how their meaning influences their behavior. |
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Qualitative Research (Continued) |
a. Qualitative research uses observation as the data collection method
b. It describes what's out there and then it tries to make sense of it - involves interpretation (wh/ is how it's different from descriptive/quantitative) |
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Types of Qualitative Research |
a. Observational research
b. Interview research c. Narrative research d. Case study research NB: don't yield # so not objective and therefore has fleibility |
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f
Observational Research |
a. Goal - to describe behavior fully and as accurately as possible
b. Observational techniques: Covert (unobtrusive or naturalistic observation - no alteration in subject behavior vs. opportunity to observe) AND Overt (direct or reactive observation) c. ex: Observing to understand "teaching effectiveness" - your description of what they're doing that you think is making them effective teachers - watch them and describe behaviors. Involves your opinion |
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Interview (As Compared to Questionnaires) |
a. Advantages: greater confidentiality possible, flexibility to give follow up Qs, opportunity to clarify questions, can judge adequacy (honesty?) of replies, and higher return rate.
b. Disadvantages/Challenges: fewer subjects can be sampled, more expensive b/c travel or phone, need to be able to take notes quickly or get permission to tape, need to be able to listen to one reply and be ready to follow up immediately w/ next Q, and requires skilled interviewer |
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Narrative |
a. narrative: "a set of words, derived from stories, interviews, written journals, and other written documents, which forms the data set in naturalistic inquiry"
b. Different forms of narratives: Therapeutic discourse, autobiography, etc c. Preservation of the context is important (not your interpretation, but what the person interviewed actually said) |
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Case Study |
a. Tend to provide in-depth information about a limited number of subjects (one or more)
b. May produce new insights that generate additional studies |
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Examples of Active vs Attribute Variables |
a. active: can change amt of liquid to swallow, tone intensity
b. attribute: can't change - gender, room temp, race, education level |
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g
Examples of Continuous vs Categorical Variables |
a. continuous: can measure, mlu, weight, stuttering frequency
b. categorical: political affiliation, presence of aphasia in subject |
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gg
IVs as Explained by Katie |
a. In Experimental Research, the IV is manipulated so it's ACTIVE
b. In Descriptive Research, the IV is an ATTRIBUTE of client - eg. race, hair color (something they can't change about themselves) |
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ggg
DVs as Explained by Katie |
a. What are you getting from the tests?
b. Results/outcomes |
