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46 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is informed consent? Why is it important? |
Consent: legally given permission to participate in a study. Important because it ensures the person is participating voluntarily, and understands what is going to happen (risks & adverse effects). |
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What is the researcher's responsibility with respect to the participant's right to privacy? |
To consider that the participants may be uncomfortable revealing information, but that it will provide very valuable information. (Right to privacy must be balanced against the welfare of society as a whole). |
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Why is deception sometimes necessary? When is it acceptable? |
Necessary when the participants cannot know the true hypothesis or purpose of the experiment. Experimenter should inform particpants ASAP afterwards of the deception. Deception should never cause negative self-evaluation, or unexpected harm/discomfort. |
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What is debriefing? What functions are served by it? |
Debriefing: informing participants after the session of the experiment's true purpose to increase their understanding and to remove possible harmful effects of deception. -to find out if the participants truly were deceived -to inform the participant of the truth |
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Views regarding the role of the research participant |
1) The participant contributes behaviour to the experiment. (The "subject" is seen as an object) 2) The participant is a colleague who cooperates in providing data and is part owner of the data |
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How are animals protected against inhumane treatment as research subjects in accordance with the ethical guidelines for psychologists? |
Section 8.09: Humane Care and Use of Animals in Research. -Researchers must consider care and comfort of the animal -Make efforts to minimize pain and suffering -Animale care and use committees oversee experiments |
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What was Milgram's experiment? |
Tested obedience to an authority figure who told participants to shock other participants, despite their apparent pain and discomfort (there were no actual shocks given, only acting.) Many people obeyed the commands, even though they didn't want to. |
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What distinguishes non-experimental from experimental research? |
The degree of control that the researcher has over the subjects and conditions of the research |
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Why is non-experimental research often called correlational research? |
Because it seeks to find causes of behaviour by looking for correlations among variables |
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Describe several common varieties of non-experimental research (O.A.C.S.) |
Observational: observing ongoing behaviour Archival: examine existing records and data Case study: studying an existing situation Survey: participants respond to questions |
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How is naturalistic observation different from the causal observation that most people do? |
Naturalistic observation is research. Casual observation is not. |
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3 ways of sampling behaviours in observational research |
Physical traces (i.e. foot prints, finger prints on glass, etc.) Archival research Case studies |
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When is physical trace research useful? Give 2 examples of physical traces |
Use traces: traces resulting from use (i.e. wear and tear) Products: evidence left behind from behaviour (i.e. trash, empty beer cans) |
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Give an example of a hypothesis that can be tested using physical traces |
"When able to freely choose, people will choose the brightly colored bowling shoes over the brown shoes." This would be tested by measuring the wear and tear on the shoes. |
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Describe the ethical problems that participant-observer research poses |
1) Researcher may have to keep their purpose a secret (i.e. not tell the group they are observing them for scientific purposes) 2) Researcher may be 'converted' 3) The researcher must strike balance between taking the viewpoint of the group & keeping scientific objectivity |
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Advantages and disadvantages of archival research? |
Advantages: Data already collected, data usually public record = fewer ethical concerns Disadvantages: inherent biases by those who collected the data, missing records, quality of data may be low, record keeping changes may have occurred since, reactivity may have been a problem when data was collected |
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2 steps in conducting a content analysis |
1) Code the manifest content (i.e. the number of certain words used in twitter posts) 2) Code the latent content (i.e. the different themes present in the twitter posts) *Manifest = objective content, Latent = subjective* |
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Research method vs. Research procedure |
Method: Broad term; Encompasses all aspects of the study, including the logic of the design and the steps for carrying it out Procedure: What the researcher does in turning the design into action |
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Why is it necessary to conduct a pilot study? |
To find the bugs/errors in the research procedure |
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Purposes of surveys |
-to determine how people feel about an issue -find the effect of an event on behavior -examine correlations between participants responses |
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Population |
a complete set of people that possess some common characteristic defined by the sampling criteria established by the researcher i.e. Dog owners in Edmonton |
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Sampling frame |
a list of all the people in the population from which the sample is drawn i.e. Dog owners who have a PetSmart rewards card |
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Sample |
the people chosen for participation in a study i.e. 300 PetSmart reward card holders |
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Elements |
Each individual who falls into the sampling frame |
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What is a representative sample? Why is it important to select a representative sample? |
Rep. sample: when the sample has the same distribution of characteristics as the population. If the sample is not representative, biases can occur. |
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Mail Surveys |
Advantages: low cost, no interviewer bias, best for personal, sensitive topics (where anonymity is preserved)
Disadvantages: questions must be self-explanatory, little control over order of questions answered, response bias (e.g., low response or return rate) |
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Advantages and Disadvantages of
Telephone Surveys |
Advantages: easy access to respondents, quick to complete, low cost, better supervision of interviewers
Disadvantages: possible interviewer bias, only for short surveys, less anonymous, can't use visual aids, calls can be screen/rejected |
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Advantages and Disadvantages of In-person Interviews |
Advantages: higher response rate, visual aids, interviewer can clarify and motivate Disadvantages: Interviewer bias, more expensive, potential interviewer effect, harder to supervise |
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Internet surveys |
Advantages: quick, low cost, potential to reach a large number of respondents, can control sequence & branching of questions, easily check for invalid responses Disadvantages: difficulty to see who is actually completing the survey, response bias, selection bias (only those with internet), no control over how the survey is completed |
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Open-ended questions |
Advantages: complete answers, possible unexpected discoveries Disadvantages: difficult to record, more effort, hard for the less-articulate |
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Closes-ended questions |
Advantages: easy to code, less effort Disadvantages: reduced expressiveness, fewer response options, may not provide an accurate response |
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How does the ordering of questions in a survey influence the quality of data? |
Priming - the respondent's thoughts about the 1st question carry over to influence their thoughts on the 2nd question In a mail survey, most important questions should be asked first to grab attention. In a phone interview, rapport should be built first by asking less invasive questions first. |
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What is acquiescence? How can researchers identify it? |
Acquiescence: tendency to agree with a statement on a questionnaire, regardless of its content Researchers can see this when respondents answer YES to any statement, and sometimes YES to two conflicting statements |
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Two limitations of survey research |
1) People answering untruthfully or carelessly 2) Response rate for different types of people might result in certain biases (i.e. Online responses might be from younger people or more technically inclined) |
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What steps should researchers take to ensure that ethical principles are followed? |
-anonymity -informed consent -confidentiality |
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Name several psychologists from history who used single-subjects in psychological research. |
Fechner - invented the basic psychophysical methods & discovered principles of psychophysics Ebbinghaus - Used himself to study memory Wundt - Founded 1st psychological lab, used introspection Pavlov - conditioned dogs |
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Assumption in single-subject approach to research |
Individual subjects are essentially equivalent and additional subjects should be studied only to make sure the 1st one isn't totally abnormal |
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Assumption in individual-differences approach to research |
Variability between subjects is inevitable, the task is to separate the effect of the experimental manipulation from the inherent variability between subjects |
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Advantages and disadvantages of single-subject approach |
Advantages: subjects act as own control, no distorted picture of individual behaviour, researcher can focus on larger effects because the smaller ones won't be as distracting, fewer people = less ethical concerns Disadvantages: need for statistical analysis to determine cause/effect, between-subject effects |
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Common single-subject designs (3) |
Comparison (AB design) Withdrawal of treatment (ABA design) Repeating treatments (ABAB design) |
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What is the ABA design? 2 principle problems associated with this design |
Includes a baseline period (A), a treatment period (B), and a subsequent withdrawal of treatment (B) 1) The effect of the manipulation may not be fully reversible 2) It may be more desirable to leave participants in their current state, rather than return to the initial state |
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When is the ABAB design superior to the ABA design? |
When another trial of the treatment is needed to test the effects and its reliability |
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What is the baseline? |
The measure of behaviour before treatment that established a reference point for evaluating the effect of treatment |
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What is a multiple-baselines design? Under what conditions is this design useful? |
Multiple-baselines: introduces different experimental manipulations to see if changes coincide with manipulation Useful when the expected behaviour change is irreversible because you don't have to remove the treatment to demonstrate causality |
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What is changing-criterion design? When is it useful? |
Changing-criterion design: introduces successively more stringent criteria for reinforcement to see if behaviour change coincides with the changing criteria Useful when the behaviour change is irreversible, or when a return to the initial baseline is not desirable |
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2 areas of psychology where single-subject approach is commonly used |
operant-conditioning - various studies involving rewards for behaviour psychophysical - testing to see if humans and pigeons can see a flash of light against different colored backgrounds |
