Research Methods Exam 1

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Un-testable statements are:

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Vague!

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Testable statements can be:

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disproven!

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From a scientific viewpoint, the statement. " the soul and the brain are the same thing” is

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Is an untestable statement. What a soul is, can be debated, as well as if it even exists.

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If your research study, such as a survey, describes how people feel, but does not tell us why they feel that way, the study is:

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Was inconclusive, it did not find out the main reason research was done. We do not know if the change (how the people felt) was a result of the intervention (what they did) of the study.
Lacking a causal relationship, the study is vague or untestable
Descriptive study (also call hypothesis generating study)

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Cal has been told for a class assignment he needs to develop a hypothesis. Name the three fundamental modes of reasoning that would play a role in his inquiry :

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1. Abduction
2. Induction
3. Deduction

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A component of developing a Hypothesis that is used to create a hypothesis in response to a phenomenon of interest or a problem of concern.

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Abduction

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A component of hypothesis which is used to clarify, to derive, and to explicate the relevant consequences of the selected hypothesis

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Deduction

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A component used to make a hypothesis which is used to test the sum of the predictions against the sum of the data.

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Induction

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6.The reasoning process that starts from a set of facts and derives the most likely explanation is known as.

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Abductive reasoning or Abduction

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correlation between, or among, two or more things, but without necessarily asserting a cause-and-effect relationship, (for example: when “A changes so does B”) or a proposition which may take the form of asserting a a causal relationship (such as "A causes B") is known as a

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“If and Then Statement”
Hypothesis

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Science is.

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Studied through research

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The differences in observations between different observers of the same phenomena.

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Interobserver variation

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When the same observer records the same observation differently due to changes within the observer not the observation

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Individual observer variation

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An apparent but not genuine relationship.

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Spurious

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The degree to which a measure actually measures what it claims to measure.

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Validity.

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The degree of certainty that a program caused a change that is being measured or the results of an evaluation is the:

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internal validity

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This type of validity requires variables which are logically consistent and represent a testable "causal relationship".

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internal validity

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This type of validity refers to the generalizability of the findings. It represents the extent to which the drawn conclusions from research can be applied to similar settings or populations outside the present study.

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External validity

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This type of validity is concerned with the accuracy of the concept that an instrument is attempting to measure.

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Construct validity

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This type of validity concerns itself with the subjective determination of validity, utilizing some form of expert judgment.

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Content Validity

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The extent to which a measure conforms to or agrees with the true value.

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accuracy

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Extent to which a measure conforms to or agrees with the true value

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accuracy

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An effect or inference that departs systematically from the true value

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Bias

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Linda and Kristin are both measuring your percent of body fat using caliper measurements. Linda's results show that you are 18% body fat, and Kristin’s results show that you are 21% body fat. This would be an example of what type of variation?

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Interobserver variations

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Dana, working as a physician assistant in a weight-loss clinic, has been measuring body fat as a form of assessing patients at the beginning of treatment, and at the end. It is found that her measurements are different depending on her feelings about the patient. This would be an example of what type of variation

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Individual observer variation

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Amy loves being a physician assistant and taking care of people. Her father claims that she is good taking care of patients, because she grew up taking care of several younger siblings.

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Spurious

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This type of reasoning works moving from specific observations to broader generalizations and theories, which is a "bottom up" approach.

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inductive reasoning

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In this type of reasoning, we begin with specific observations and measures, begin to detect patterns and regularities formulate some tentative hypotheses that we can explore, and finally end up developing some general conclusions or theories.

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inductive reasoning

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reasoning works from the more general to the more specific. Sometimes this is informally called a "top-down" approach.

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deductive reasoning

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Brandy notices that every time, she goes to set her purse on the kitchen counter, it slips and falls to the floor. The next time she goes to set her purse down she thinks it will probably fall on the floor. This is a form of.

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Inductive reasoning

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Research is important to science, because it will test ____ and develop _____.

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test hypotheses and develop theories.

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Understanding research can help Lindsey analyze a study for?

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Validity

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T/F:
Scientists believe in objective facts, because they know from past experience that we can't always accept people's subjective opinions.

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TRUE!

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As long as you have good secondhand sources, it is not important for you to be able to read the original research and come to your own conclusions.

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FALSE!

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Santa, a researcher, found that tickling causes subjects to become more aggressive. She then concluded that happiness causes people to be more aggressive. If other researchers argued that tickling was not a manipulation of happiness, they would be questioning the studies.

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VALIDITY

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you have an outcome when research accurately identifies cause - effect relationship, you have

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INTERNAL VALIDITY

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When research findings can be generalized to situations outside of the original study, it is said to have

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EXTERNAL VALIDITY

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Hypothesis can originate from the following two things:

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previous observations and extensions of scientific theories.

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This type of hypothesis is presumed true until: statistical evidence, in the form of a hypothesis test, indicates otherwise — that is, when the researcher has a certain degree of confidence, usually 95% to 99%, that the data does not support the ____hypothesis.

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Null Hypothesis

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This hypothesis is set up to be refuted or rejected in order to support an alternative hypothesis.

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Null Hypothesis

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If a test is designed to measure love, but measures liking instead, the test is:

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NOT VALID!

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Repeating the study, but using participants who differed from those in the original study (young women instead of older women, men instead of rats (or is this the same) may result in a study that has more of what than the original?

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EXTERNAL VALIDITY

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Most variables in research are easy to measure.

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FALSE!

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A research design, where the subject did both treatment in sequence is a

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CROSS OVER DESIGN

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A research design, where subjects are assessed in a single time in their lives is

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CROSS SECTIONAL DESIGN

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TRUE OR FALSE
The advantage of a cross-sectional study is that it is fast, and it can study a large number of patients at little cost or effort

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TRUE

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TRUE OR FALSE
The disadvantage of a cross-sectional study, is that it may result in trouble deciding cause-and-effect

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TRUE

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TRUE OR FALSE
A descriptive study is one where researchers control the allocation of a treatment to the research subjects.

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FALSE

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TRUE OR FALSE
In a descriptive study, the emphasis is on estimation rather than testing, and parents might be appropriate to providE a SWAG on the prevalence of a disease.

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TRUE

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TRUE OR FALSE
Descriptive studies are quite popular and prevalent because these types of studies are used to generate hypothesis.

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TRUE

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A study that tries to reveal patterns associated with a specific disease without an emphasis on pre-specified hypotheses is called?

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Descriptive studies! also called : hypothesis generating studies.

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When the emphasis is on estimation rather than testing, this is called what kind of study?

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descriptive studies

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o the prevalence of a disease,
o the natural history of a disease.
o the resources required to treat the disease.
o attitudes and perceptions about the disease
Are all quantities you might want to estimate in what kind of study?

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Descriptive study!

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The following 3 basic types of studies:
- Case/control studies
o Cohort studies
o Experimental studies
are all examples of what type of study?

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analytical studies

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This type of Analytical Study compares those diagnosed with a disease (cases) with those who do not have the disease (control);

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Case/Control Study

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This type of Analytical Study is used when identifying factors after disease has occurred.

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Retrospective study

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This type of Analytical Study is used when you need to study a group of people who share some important characteristic; compares non-diseased groups & whether exposed or unexposed to a factor & determines rates of disease

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Cohort Study

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This type of analytical study is used to study a population that begins disease-free & follows until disease develops

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Prospective Study

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This type of Analytical Study is a study that's carried out under controlled conditions.

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Experimental Study

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TRUE OR FALSE
A reason for conducting a case-control study is to determine the odds ratio, or to “relative risk“because incident measures cannot be obtained from two groups.

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TRUE!

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A low p-value means:

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The results yield less than .05 and are considered borderline statistically significant.

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In statistics, a result is called ____ if it's unlikely to have occurred by chance.

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Statistically significant

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To avoid false negatives in a screening program to detect breast cancer among women over 50 years of age, the test must be:

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must have a Large Sensitivity. or be Specific

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You are doing a study of a senior class at a large university (3000 students), which involves collecting data on each student. Exactly half of the class is from that city, and the other half is from other places. You find, among other things, that the students from the city are on average 5 pounds heavier than other students, and their blood pressure is 3 points higher. Which of the following conclusions can not be drawn?

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You can NOT conclude that being from the city causes you to be heavier or have higher BP

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Ability to identify those who have that condition is known as?

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Sensitivity

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Ability to identify those who do not have that condition is known as

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specificity

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The ____ of a test is the probability that the test is positive when given to a group of patients with the disease.

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Sensitivity

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Sensitivity is also known as the false _____ rate?

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False Negative

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Specificity is also known as the false ___ rate?

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False Positive

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In a false negative rate- Notice that the denominator for sensitivity is the number of patients who: (choose one)
a. have the disease
b. are healthy.

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Have the disease

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A study in which the participants are assigned by chance to separate groups that compare different treatments and neither the researchers nor the participants can choose which group is known as a

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Randomized clinical trial

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If the effects of two processes are not separate, it is

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Correlated

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In a study of 5,113 subjects checked for gastric cancer by endoscopy (Gut 1999; 44: 693-697), serum pepsinogen concentrations were also measured. A pepsinogen I concentration of less than 70 ng/ml and a ratio of pepsinogen I to pepsinogen II of less than 3 was considered a positive test. There were 13 patients with gastric cancer confirmed by endoscopy. 11 of these patients were positive on the test. Which is true?

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They are correlated, but a positive test doesn’t guarantee cancer.

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True or False.
In Cardo (1997), 33 health care workers who became seropositive to HIV after percutaneous exposure to HIV-infected blood were compared to 665 health care workers with similar exposure who did not become seropositive. Since the researchers did not control who became seropositive, this is an observational study.

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True!

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True or False.
A random sample is one where the researcher insures (usually through the use of random numbers applied to a list of the entire population) that each member of that population has an equal probability of being selected.

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True!

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True or False.
Studies are useful to the extent that they yield valid inferences about events that have been in the study sample (internal validity) and about generalizing these events to people outside the study (external validity)

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True!

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True or False-
Random Error is the wrong result due to bias.

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False: Random Error is due to Chance.

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True or False.
Systematic Error wrong result due to chance

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False, Systemic Error is due to Bias!

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A ____ question is what the investigator really wants to answer. The Question should provide:
-a clear focus
-describe variables in terms that can be measured
-specify the population.

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Research Question

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True or false:
The challenge of a research question is to find an important one that can be transformed into a feasible and valid study plan

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True! Reseach questions should be interesting, novel, ethical and relevant.

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If it is determined that too few subjects have been selected, which might be an acceptable way to increase the sample size?

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Increase numbers and diversity. Change the method of contacting individuals and data colleciton in order to attract more individuals and increase sample size.