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121 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are the six features of scientific method? |
1. Objectivity 2. Replication 3. Control 4. Theory construction 5. Hypothesis testing 6. Use of empirical methods |
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What is objectivity? |
When the observer's aim is for no influence of personal prejudices, expectations or emotions on their theory/explanations/findings |
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What is replication? |
What's being claimed/researched must be able to be repeated by others - which is done by publishing all details of study. Replicability also means reliability. |
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What is control? |
Control is an experimental method where all conditions are kept the same to ensure 'fair' test. Its the only way of demonstrating relationships to enable us to predict and control our world. |
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What is theory construction? |
An additional aim of science is to use facts to construct theories to help us understand and predict phenomena around us. |
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What is hypothesis testing? |
For a theory to be scientific it must be able to predict behaviour. To do this it must be possible to show their wrong (falsifiability). Scientists propose experiments, test them + reject those disproved and tentatively accept hose that aren't. |
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Why can't science ever establish truths? |
We cannot be sure if hypotheses won't be falsified, hence why its essential to provide a null hypothesis |
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What is meant by the use of empirical methods? |
Science features a dependence on empirical methods (observation and investigation) which involves observations based on sensory experiences rather than simply thoughts and beliefs. |
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Can psychology claim to be a science? |
Psychology is a science insofar as it shares the goals of all sciences and uses scientific methods. Psychology uses well-controlled experiments to test 'hunches' and theories |
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What does Miller (1983) suggest? |
That psychologists who attempt to be scientists are no more than dressing up because the tools of science taken on (i.e. quantified measurements and stats) but the essence of science has eluded them. |
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What does Kuhn (1962) claim? |
That psychology cannot be a science because there's no single paradigm Instead psychology has a number of different approaches/paradigms and thus suggested as a 'pre-science' |
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What does Popper (1935) suggest? |
That for psychology to be considered scientific, we need the ability to falsify hypotheses as falsification is the only way we can be certain. Popper said 'no amount of observations of white swans can allow inference that all swans are white, but of a single black swan is sufficient to refute that conclusion' |
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What is peer review? |
It is an assessment of scientific work by others who are experts in the same field (i.e., peers) |
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What are the three reasons for role of peer review? |
A) Purpose B) Process C) Pitfalls |
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What is the purpose of peer review? |
A system of quality assurance applies to research publication. Therefore the intention of peer reviewing is to ensure any research conduction and publishing is of high quality |
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What is the process of peer review? |
Researcher sends report to an editor of a journal - who then sends it out to three psychologists [referees] regarded as experts in the area Referees analyse + comment on whether editor should include it in publication |
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Why aren't referees in peer reviewing normally unaware of the researcher's identity? |
In order to prevent various forms of bias from occurring and influencing the chances of it being published |
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What are the pitfalls in the peer reviewing system? |
1. Reports in journals tend to be about findings that support the hypotheses (those that don't aren't usually published) 2. Can be called 'file drawer problem' bc if results aren't significant the researchers keep them in a filing cabinet and they never get written up for publication |
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What is the issue with 'file-drawer problem'? |
It is unfortunate and has issues of bias As there is a tendency for certain institutions to get published more [e.g. its easier to get published if you work at a university as opposed to a further education college] |
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Why aren't referees not paid for peer reviewing? |
Bc they want to be involved in the process and learn what's going on in the 'field' |
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Why is it important to get published in peer-reviewed journals? |
1. Its generally accepted that articles that are published in peer-reviewed journals are of greater merit than those that aren't 2. Research is only published if it makes a contribution to the scientific field and research process has been methodologically and ethically sound |
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How are scientific journals research reports organised? |
1. Abstract 2. Intro 3. Method 4. Results 5. Discussion 6. References |
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What is an abstract and why are they important? |
Summary of study covering all main sections (which is approximately 150 words) These are important so reader can see aim, method + results of study at a glance |
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What is an intro? |
Review of previous research (theories and studies) in area leading to rational for why the researcher intends to conduct the study |
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What is the method? |
A detailed description of what researcher did - providing enough information for other psychologists to replicate the study Researcher may also state predictions and/or hypotheses |
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What does the method section of a research report include? |
Details about the sample, materials used and the procedure Ethical considerations mentioned and how they're dealt with |
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What does the results section contain? |
What the researcher found (statistical data) including descriptive stats (tables, averages and graphs) and inferential stats (stats tests to determine significance) |
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What is discussion? |
Explanations of behaviours observed are offered and might also consider the implications of the results Also suggestions for future research |
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What are references? |
Full details of any books/articles the journal mentioned Format is followed in all journals reporting psychological investigations |
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What is a lab experiment? |
An experiment conducted in a laboratory environment where variables can be carefully controlled? |
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Why are lab experiments good? |
They are ideal for investigation into the effects of a certain variable on the behaviour and responses of people (e.g a memory test) And they attempt to establish cause and effect |
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What is a field experiment? |
These are experiments conducted in a natural environment (i.e., in the field) Participants may or may not be aware of the research taking place |
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Why are field experiments good? |
These are ideal for investigation into behaviour in a natural setting (e.g. social behaviour on the underground) This also removes the issue with artificiality and eliminates demand characteristics |
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What is a natural experiment? |
An experiment where the independent variable is not manipulated deliberately by the researcher - it comes about naturally |
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What is a natural experiment most suitable for? |
Wide scale investigations or longitudinal studies (e.g. the introduction of television in St Helena) |
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State the three types of self-report methods |
Questionnaires Interviews Observational studies |
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What is a questionnaire?
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Method of self-report whereby participants answer a series of questions based on their views/opinions and beliefs on a certain topic E.g., attitudes towards sexism in society |
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What are interviews? |
Method of self-report where an interviewer asks the participant a serious of questions and discusses their opinions + attitudes with them to gather people's views and beliefs on the subject of their research |
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When is an interview useful?
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When trying to research the beliefs of people on a certain topic |
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What are observational studies? |
Method research where participants are observed during a period of time in a specific setting, and info on their behaviours is recorded down and interpreted
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When is an observational study particularly useful? |
When trying to study the way people behave in a given situation |
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What is a correlational analysis? |
The study of the relationship of two variables, and how they interact with each other Used to study whether one variable increases the likelihood of another variable occurring |
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What is a case study?
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A detailed, in-depth research study on a single individual or a small group of individuals Used to study effects of something, such as a disorder or deficiency, on a person |
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What is a content analysis? |
A technique for systematically describing written, spoken or visual communication Done by categorising certain behaviours/attitudes and counting how many times it occurs in a single piece of media Used to study things like aggression in different forms of media |
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What is sampling? |
Sampling is the process of selecting participants from the population.
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What are the three types of sampling? |
Volunteer sampling Random sampling Opportunity sampling |
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What is the target population? |
The total group of individuals from which the sample might be drawn. |
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What is a volunteer sample and how is it selected? |
Participants selected by asking for volunteers e.g., sending out an advertisement via email, asking for volunteers for a psychological study on memory |
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Evaluate volunteer sampling in terms of bias, generalisability and cost. |
1. Bias - sample is likely to be biased bc the type of person who would volunteer for a study is more likely to be confident [special kind of person] or eager 2. Limited generalisability - because a special type of person is more likely to volunteer, findings aren't typical of the target population as their behaviour would be representative of everyone 3. Cost - sample may cost more than alternatives like opportunity sampling bc sufficient number of participants showing up is highly unlikely and unreliable (cost more in terms of time) |
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What is a random sample and how is it carried out? |
Participants selected at random using a randomised numbering technique I.e., identifying all members of the target population, putting all names into a random generator and allowing it to select the number of participants needed |
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Evaluate random sampling in terms of bias, generalisability and cost? |
1. Bias - sample is less likely to be biased because everyone in target population has an equal chance of being selected to take part (randomisation) 2. Generalisability - sample is generalisable as it is randomly selected so will be representative of the target population 3. Cost - this is the most costly sample method bc its v time consuming to draw up a list that long and select participants (not all will want to take part either) |
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What is an opportunity sample and how is it carried out? |
Participants are approached and asked directly if they would be willing to take part in a research study E.g., going up to people on a certain road and asking them if they could spare a few minutes to answer a questionnaire |
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Evaluate opportunity sampling in terms of bias, generalisability and cost. |
1. Bias - sample is likely to be biased bc people approached in a given area might be a certain type of person (especially in a school environment) 2. Generalisability - results will be limited in generalisability as people available to the researcher in a given period = unlikely to be typical of the entirety of the target population 3. Cost - of all the sample methods this is considered to be the least costly as its efficient and convenient for both the researcher and the participants |
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What is the definition of reliability? |
When two or more measurements or observations of the same psychological events are consistent with eachother |
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What are the two types of reliability? |
Internal reliability External reliability |
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What is internal reliability? |
The measure of the extent to which something is consistent within itself for example, all questions on an IQ test are measuring the same thing |
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What is external reliability? |
The measure of consistency over several different occasions |
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What are the two types of external reliability? |
Inter-interviewer reliability Inter-rater reliability |
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What is inter-interviewer reliability? |
Whether the outcomes of two interviewers with the same interviewee are the same, and whether the two interviewers produce the same outcome |
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What is inter-rater reliability? |
Ideally two or some interviewers should produce the same record |
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What are the three methods of assessing reliability? |
Split-half method (int) Test-retest method (ext) Observer reliability (ext) |
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How do you assess internal reliability? |
Split-half method: this is to compare a person's performance on two halves of a questionnaire - if the test is assessing the same thing in all questions, there should be a close correlation in scores derived from both halves of test |
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How do you assess external reliability using the test-retest method? |
A person is given a questionnaire/test/interview on one occasion, then it is repeated after a reasonable interval - if the measure is reliable, the outcome should be almost the same |
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How do you assess external reliability using inter-observer reliability? |
Observers record own data individually then these sets are correlated to establish a degree of similarity in scores - inter-obser reliability is achieved if theres a significant +ve correlation between scores of diff observers |
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How can you improve interviewer reliability? |
Carefully check questions so that they are clear and not ambiguous Filming the interview so it can be replicated |
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How can you improve observer reliability? |
Training observers in the use of a coding system/behaviour checklist Operationalising definitions of key terms involved so that they are clear and understood fully by all observers Independent checks for reliability can be made by using audio/video tapes |
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What is the definition of validity? |
The extent to which we are actually testing/measuring what we claim to be |
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How is validity related to reliability? |
If the measurement isn't consistent, it cannot be measuring what it claims to be |
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How can a measurement be reliable but not valid? |
If someone takes an IQ test and does the same one a few months later scoring the same both times - shows the test is reliable but test may not be measuring IQ, but measuring how good they are at tests |
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What are the two types of validity? |
Internal validity External validity |
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What is internal validity? |
This concerns with what goes on inside a study (whether the researcher tested what they intended to test e.g. intelligence was tested rather than a person's memory |
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How is internal validity affected by extraneous variables? |
They act as an alternative to the independent variable - therefore changes in DV are due to EVs rather than IV thus research isn't testing what its claimed to be |
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What are the three measures of internal validity? |
Face validity Concurrent validity Predictive validity |
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What is face validity? |
Whether the measure appears to be measuring what it claims to be - more worthwhile if an opinion is obtained from an expert |
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What is concurrent validity? |
This compares new tests to other tests (testing phenomenon) to see if they produce similar results - if tests agree, they have concurrent validity |
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What is predictive validity? |
Shows the measure is valid bc it can accurately predict performance of that behaviour E.g. if IQ test has predictive validity, you should be able to estimate individual performance on future intellectually demanding tasks |
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What is external validity? |
This is concerned with factors outside of the study - it's the extent to which findings can be generalised to other situations and people beyond those used in study |
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What are the two types of external validity? |
Population validity Ecological validity |
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What is population validity? |
The extent to which results from research can be generalised to other groups |
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What is ecological validity? |
The extent to which research findings can be generalised to situations outside the research setting? |
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How can the internal validity of laboratory experiments be improved? |
Control all extraneous variables so that the IV is the only variable influencing the DV Change tests to ensure they're measuring what they claim - may be that multiple tests are needed |
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How can the external validity of laboratory experiments be improved? |
Use tasks that are less artificial and true to real life Use representative sample and carry out study cross-culturally |
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How can the internal validity of field experiments be improved? |
Controll all the extraneous variables as far as possible Change the test/measurement so its measuring what it should be |
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How can the external validity of field experiments be improved? |
Ensure participants don't know they are being studied - therefore behaviour will be more realistic/natural |
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How can the internal validity of observational studies be improved? |
Change the coding system/behaviour checklist because some may fit into more than one category or some may not be able to be coded Have more than one observer to reduce subjectivity/bias |
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How can the external validity of observational studies be improved? |
Use covert observations where possible to ensure participants don't know they're being studied - thus behaviour is more realistic/natural |
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What are the five ethical considerations in psychological research? |
Informed consent Protection from harm Deception Confidentiality Debriefing |
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What is the ethical consideration of informed consent? |
Psychologists should always gain valid consent of participants, ensuring they make an informed decision about the nature of contribution and potential consequences |
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How should psychologists maintain the ethical consideration of informed consent? |
1. Give full information to participants (including aspects which may influence their willingness to participate) 2. Only withhold information necessary to objectivity of the investigation and only after consultation with experienced colleagues 3. Seek permission for those with legal authority for those who can't give consent themselves 4. Only carry out observational research in institutions where those being observed expect to be seen by strangers (unless participants have given consent) |
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What is a strength of gaining informed consent? |
+ Gaining informed consent is important in terms of participants and researchers being seen in a positive light |
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What are the weaknesses of gaining informed consent? |
- Gaining fully informed consent may not be possible(Epstein and Lasagna found only 1/3 of those who gave IC really understood the purpose of research) - Researchers may not be able to accurately predict risks involved in research (when ptcpts unable to give IC - reactions are more natural as less likely to respond to demand characteristics [giving more internal validity]) |
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What is the ethical consideration of protection from harm? |
Researchers have primary responsibility to protect participants from any physical and mental harm during an investigation |
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How is the ethical consideration of protection from harm maintained? |
1. Ensure nothing happens to participants during the study that can cause harm 2. Ensure risk of harm is no greater than in ordinary life 3. Avoid physical harm (e.g., getting ptcpts to smoke) 4. Avoid psychological harm (e.g., making ptcpts play aggression-inducing video games) |
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What are the weaknesses of maintaining the ethical consideration of protection from harm? |
1. Some psychologists argue that researchers shouldn't avoid carrying out important research that could potentially cause harm 2. Harm is seen as more acceptable when research is important |
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What is the ethical consideration of deception? |
Withholding information or misleading or participants is unacceptable if participant is typically likely to object or show unease once debriefed |
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How is the ethical consideration of deception maintained? |
1. Do not deceive participants without a good cause 2. Be aware that providing false information is worse than withholding information 3. Be aware that deception prevents participants from giving informed consent |
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What are the strengths of deceiving participants? |
Sometimes deception is necessary (often the case in social influence research e.g. Asch) Deception may be used if unlikely to lead to distress Christiansen (1988) found many ptcpts don't object to deception as long as it isn't extreme Many say they enjoy research involving deception |
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What is a weakness of deceiving participants? |
Baumrind argued deception is wrong because it obstructs the right to informed consent and may cause participants distress - this makes researchers appear untrustworthy + doesn't reflect well on the psychological community |
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What is the ethical consideration of confidentiality? |
The privacy of individuals and organisations, and any information gained from them is to be kept confidential - identity of participant should never be revealed |
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How is the ethical consideration of confidentiality maintained? |
1. Safeguard the security of the records (including those held on a computer) 2. Take steps to ensure colleagues also respond the need for confidentiality 3. Communicate information without identifying individuals/organisations |
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What is the ethical consideration of debriefing? |
Participants have to receive an explanation after participating in a study to ensure they understand the research and their role in it |
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What should be done when carrying out a debrief? |
1. Debrief with enough information so participants complete their understanding of the research 2. Be aware that debriefing isn't a justification for unethical procedures 3. Discuss participants' experience and monitor any unforeseen negative effects/misconceptions |
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What is a weakness of debriefing? |
1. Debriefing cannot turn back the clock - participant may still feel embarrassed/have lowered self-esteem |
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What are the evaluation points of ethical guidelines? |
-ve They're only guidelines, not rules: - Can be accused of being vague/difficult to apply. Vary in different countries, so not universal guidelines applied worldwide +ve Role of ethical committees: - Successes of guidelines depends on how effectively they're used by ECs - Committees include both psychs and non-psychs to represent the lay person's point of view - ECs make suggestions on how to make a study more ethical -ve Enforcing the guidelines - BPS/APs can punish psychologists who don't stick to guidelines - HWVR srs punishments can't be applied as its not breaking the law e.g. punishment = blacklisting (so research might not be published/funded) - If a psych goes against guidelines, s/he may be excluded from BPS and APS |
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What is the SACWAP? |
Standing Advisory Committee on Welfare of Animals in Psychology |
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What are the 4 ethical guidelines when using non-human participants? |
Housing conditions Number of animals Choice of species Minimising pain and suffering |
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What is the ethical consideration of housing conditions? |
Caging conditions need to take into account the social behaviour of species |
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How is the ethical consideration of housing conditions maintained? |
1. Ensure they're aware of social behaviour of type of animal they're using (e.g. caging in isolation may be stressful for social animals) 2. Be responsible for their animals' conditions of care + where possible incorporate the aspects of their natural living environment |
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What is the ethical consideration of number of animals? |
Laboratory studies should use as few animals as possible |
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How is the ethical consideration of the number of animals maintained? |
1. Use well thought out experimental design to ensure the least amount of animals are used 2. Ensure reliable measures behaviour are used to reduce the number of animals necessary in any given study |
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What is the ethical consideration of choice of species? |
Species that are scientifically and ethically suitable for intended use should be chosen |
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How is the ethical consideration of the choice of species maintained? |
1. Choose species suited to answer research question 2. Be informed on species on natural history 3. Have some knowledge on the animal's history (e.g. if it was bred in captivity) 4. Species should be chosen which is likely to suffer the least 5. Wild animals should only be used in conservation attempts |
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What is the ethical consideration of minimising pain and suffering? |
Researchers have the duty to ensure any suffering is minimised and justified by an expected outcome
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What should psychologists do to minimise pain and suffering? |
1. Not cause pain or distress to animals unless the experimenter holds an appropriate Home Office license 2. Consider using options to motivate the animal other than aversive stimuli 3. If they are depriving the animals, the experimenter should consider the animal's normal eating and drinking patterns; what may be a short period of deprivation for one species may be unacceptably long for another |
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What did Bateson (1986) suggest about using animals? |
Bateson (1986) argued theres three main criteria that should be accounted for when deciding whether a study on animals is justifiable? |
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What is Bateson's three main criteria? |
1. Quality of research 2. Likelihood of benefit 3. Amount of animal suffering |
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What are the arguments FOR using animals? |
a) Animals offer opportunity for greater control and objectivity in research procedure (Pavlov's dogs e.g.) b) Sometimes we can't use humans for research, so animals are a good alternative to enable us to do the research (e.g. Harlow's monkeys) c) Theres basic similarity in physiological structure and functioning between humans and animals, even some behavioural similarity w/some species d) Gray (1991)accepted its ethically wrong to inflict unnecessary pain on members of any species, but we have a duty to our own species |
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What are the arguments AGAINST using animals?
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a) Issue with ecological validity when using animals for research - this questions the value of data obtained from animal studies as most are lab based, and even field exps disturb their natural environment b) Problem w/generalisability suggesting even when data is valid it cannot be applied to humans bc of difference in evolution + genetics - Structural diffs in cerebral cortex, humans have influence of language, culture + higher cognitive processes c) Regan (1984) argued there are no circumstances under which animal research is acceptable as animals have the right to be treated w/respect |
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What did Sieber and Stanley (1988) describe socially sensitive research as? |
Studies in which there's potential social consequences/implications, either directly for participants in research or class of individuals represented by research |
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What are three examples of socially sensitive research? |
1. Bowlby's theory stated a mother is the most important carer and care should be provided on continuous basis - could influence the way children are raised + type of care provided for children w/out parents/adopted etc 2. Hamers researched history of 114 gay men + found being gay tends to be inherited (a region on X chromosome influences sexual orientation in men only) - can help support equal rights for gay men in society 3. Jenson carried out research where he compared IQ of black and white Americans + found on avg black Americans scored 15 puts less - can help provide better education for all Americans |
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What ethical considerations should be considered when conducting socially sensitive research? |
A) How good is the methodology? B) Who will the research be reported to? C) How will the findings be used? |
