Research Methods

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What assigns scores to patterns, items reflect the variable in a range from weak to strong in terms of relation to the overall concept?

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A Scale

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This is where nobody, even the researcher can identify a given response with a given respondent

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Anonymity

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This is where the researcher can identify the response with the respondent but agrees not to share it with anyone else

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Confidentiality

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What are the 2 requirements for defining variables?

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Exhaustive and mutually exclusive

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This is a specified testable expectation about empirical reality, generally derived from a theory

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hypothesis

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This is a systemic explanation for the observations that relate to a particular aspect of life

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Theory

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The chief responsibility of this is to ensue that the risks faced by human participation in research is minimal, also provide federal funding

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IRB or Institutional Review Boards

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A quality that describes a social entity. Social research is concerned with the relationship between these.

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Variable

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These are characteristics of individuals, groups or things

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Attributes

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This is presumed to cause or determine a dependent variable. Values are not problematic.

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Independent Variable

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This is assumed to be caused by another variable

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Dependent Variable

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Tis is a pattern between variables that the dependent variable will follow a pattern based on the observed value of the independent variable

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Correlation

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This paradigm focuses on the competing interests of different groups- particularly class struggle. See certain social positions in conflict with each other.

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Conflict Theory

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Marx was a proponent of which theory?

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Conflict- focused on economic class

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This paradigm views society as an organism where every part acts as an organ with a purpose to society, each contributing to the whole

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Structural Functionalism

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Durkheim and Parsons were proponents of which theory?

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Structural Functionalism

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The "whom" or "what" being studied. Usually individuals.

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Units of Analysis

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Observations of a sample of a population or phenomenon that are made at one single point in time

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Cross-Sectional

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Type of measurement where the distance between attributes is meaningful

Ex. temperature, distance

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Interval Levels of Measurement

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A type of measurement where we can logically rank the attributes, you can say there is more than or less than the other

Ex. prejudice, conservatism

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Ordinal Levels of Measurement

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A type of non-probability sampling method whereby each person interviewed may be asked to suggest additional people for interviewing

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Snowball Sampling

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A type of Non-Probability sampling in which units are selected into a sample on the basis of prespecified characteristics so that the total sample will have the same distributive characteristics of the population

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Quota Sampling

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A sampling technique selected in some way not suggested by probability theory

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Non-Probability Sampling

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A sampling technique used when researchers want precise statistical descriptions of large populations. This produces a sample that is representative of the population.

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Probability Theory

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When the characteristics of a sample closely approximate the aggregate characteristics of the population

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Representativeness

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A type of composite measure that summarizes and rank-orders several specific observations and represents some more general dimension

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Index

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If we measure something again and again it should yield the same results. It is consistent. It is _________

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Reliable

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When measures are accurate or they measure what they intended to they are ______

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Valid

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This is a form of logic and systemic explanation of what we expect some set of observations to look like. It offers a reasonable, logical explanation for why the patterns we expect to observe will be present when we make observation.

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Theory

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When new evidence is provided through measurement it can either result in modification of a paradigm or usher in a new paradigm in this modal

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Natural science model

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In this model we do not throw out old paradigms we just create other ones. trying to organize and find patterns

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Social Science Model

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Numerical data or data expressed in numbers

Ex. How many siblings people have

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Quantitative

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This data cannot be meaningfully expressed using numbers

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Qualitative

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What are three ways we learn about the social world?

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Direct Experience- observation with our senses

Agreed Upon Understanding-tradition, media

Scientific Approach Method

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This created the National Commission for the Protection of Human subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research and published the Belmont Report

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The National Research Act of 1974

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This was a study done in a prison concerning the extreme effects of social roles and positions

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Stanford Prison Experiment

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The researcher who conducted the Stanford Prison Experiment

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Zimbardo

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This paradigm focuses on macro issues, the social behaviors of individuals and how it is affected by our relationships with others

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Symbolic Interactionism

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Cooley was a proponent of this theory- he claimed that everything we know about ourselves we can derive from others

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Symbolic Interactionism

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Paradigm that claims people are continually trying to make sense of the world they are in

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Ethnomethodology

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Garfinkle was a proponent of this theory

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Ethnomethodology

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A scientific approach grounded on the rational proof/disproof of scientific assertions. It assumes an objective reality

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Positivism

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What are the pillars of scientific inquiry?

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Logic and Observation

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Explain the origins of sociology

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Comte coined the term in 1822 and claimed you could use science to explore the social world. This positivist method replaced the old theological or meta explanations. He hoped the positivist approach would result in 'social laws'

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This is a testable explanation about empirical reality that follows a more general proposition

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Hypothesis

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A logical model where general principles are developed from specific observations. Uses observation to generalize and construct a hypothesis or theory

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Induction

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Logical model where specific expectations of hypotheses are developed on the basis of general principles. Begins with a hypothesis or theory and tests it through observation to draw a conclusion

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Deduction

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This can change the observed relationship between X and Y

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Third-Variable

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What are 3 effects of a third-variable?

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Additional independent, Intervening, Moderating

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The process of specifying what we mean when we use particular concepts for research. Figuring out exactly what we are studying and defining our terms

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Conceptualization

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The process of developing research procedures and specifying the exact operations involved in measuring a variable

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Operationalization

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The aggregation of elements from which the sample is actually selection

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Study Population

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This is when one erroneously draws conclusions about individuals from the observation of the group

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Ecological Fallacy

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What three things must be present to declare causality?

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1) correlation

2) The cause must precede the effect

3) The relationship cannot be spurious

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A type of probability sampling where the units to be observed are selected on the basis of the researcher's judgment about which ones will be most representative

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Judgmental Sampling

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What is the Literary Digest Poll's notoriety for in the scientific world?

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They predicted Alf Landon would beat FDR in a landslide but the actual results were that FDR beat Alf Landon by an even bigger landslide. This was the result of 'systemic bias.'

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What are three types or purposes of research?

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Explanatory, Descriptive, Exploratory

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What are the overarching principles of ethics?

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Respect for persons, beneficience, justice

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What were the results of the Belmont Report?

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Voluntary participation, no harm to participants, informed consent, anonymity & confidentiality

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A type of scale that uses stand responses such as 'strongly agree' 'agree' and 'disagree'

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Lickert Scale

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What is a key difference between indexes and scales?

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Indexes add scores assigned to individual attributes while scales assign scores to patterns and apply weight

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The type of measurement offers names or labels for characteristics that denote differences in categories Ex. gender, race, hair color

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Nominal levels of Measurement

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A selection of a population according to some rule

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Sample

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The group or collection we are interested in generalizing about

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Population

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What are three types of probability sampling?

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Random Selection, Systemic, Stratified

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What are four types of non-probability sampling?

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Convenience, Purposive/Judgmental, Quota, Snowball

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A type of measurement where the attributes have meaningful distances between them, and also have a true zero point

Ex. income, age

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Ratio Levels

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What are the main points of the Harris and Sim reading, and what are the different measures of race included as variables?

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The article was about how adolescents categorize themselves as multiracial. The different variables are school race, home race and parent's race.

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What is the Gottlieb reading and the discussion on college ranking about?

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The U.S. News and World Reports annual college ranking by using weighted scales for different things such as 'money spent' and 'test scores'.

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What was the O'Conner study about and what were the findings?

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Study about the influence of youth and adult experiences on personal spirituality and Church involvement. The findings supported social learning theory and family life cycle theory.

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What was the Mazza study about and what were the findings?

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Study about African American urban adolescent first-time fathers and developing better consistent relationships with their young children. The main variable was employment status. The findings were that developing programs that focus on teaching parenting skills are not enough for father's they need therapeutic social work.

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What was the Anderson and Seltzer reading about?

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It concerned statistical confidentiality in official statistics. It discussed protection against hypothetical intruders, as well as government agency intruders especially with the war on terror and continuous threats to the US gov.

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Why are probability samples preferred to non-probability samples?

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Probability samples are less likely to result in a biased sample and are more representative of the population.

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What are some problems with relying on direct experience?

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Limited senses lead to inaccurate observation, overgeneralizing, illogical reasoning, selective observation

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What is a way we can uphold ethics but still get the results we want?

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Deception- if the study would be compromised if they participants knew the question

Debriefing- minimizes harm from deception

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What are some similarities between indexes and scales?

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Both are ordinal measures and both measurements are based on more than one item.

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This is a list or quasi-list from which a probability sample is drawn

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Sampling-frame

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What are three types of longitudinal designs?

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Cohort, Trend, Panel

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Careful deliberate observations of the "real" world for the purpose of describing objects and events in terms of the attributes composing a variable

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Measurement

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An observation that we choose to consider as a reflection of a concept we wish to study

Ex. Proof of religiosity may be attendance in church time, or spent praying daily

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Indicator

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A type of probability sampling where each element within a sample is assigned a number and has the same likelihood of being drawn

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Random Selection Sampling

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A type of probability sampling where every Xth element is drawn

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Systemic Sampling

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A type of probability sampling where elements are organized into sameness and then chosen based on random or Xth element being drawn

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Stratified Sampling