Research Methods

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hindsight bias

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the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have forseen it (I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)

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curiosity

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underlying science, apssion to explore and understand without misleading or being mislead

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cuious skepticism

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scientists persistently ask: what do you mean? how do you know?--all about evidence

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critical thinking

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thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

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scientific method

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make observations, form theories, and refine theories in light of new observations

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hypothesis

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a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

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operational definition

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a statememnt of procedures (operations) used to define research variables. for example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelliegence test measures

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replication

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repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see wheter the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

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case study

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an observation technique in which one person is stidied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
-shows us what can happen

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survey

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a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them

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false consensus effect

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the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our belifs and behaviors

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representative case

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extend point to everyday thinking, and generalize from smaples we observe, especially vivid cases

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population

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all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study.

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random samples

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a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance on inclusion

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naturalistic observation

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observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situation whithout tying to mainpulate and control the situation

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correlate

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a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well eiher factor predcts the other

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corelation coefficient

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mathematical expression of the relationship, raning from -1 to +1

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scatter plots

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a graphec cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of 2 variables.. the slope of the points sggests the direction of the relationship between two variables. the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter = high correlation)

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illusionary correlation

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the perception of a relationship where none exists

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experiment

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a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more fators (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behaavior or mental process (the dependent variable) by random assignment of participants, the experimentor aims to control other relevant factors

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placebo

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pseudotreatment

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double blind procedure

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an experimental procedure in which both the research particiants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have recieved the treatment or a placebo.

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placebo effect

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experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent

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experimental condition

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the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, this is, to one version of the independent variable

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control condition

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the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluation of the effect of the treatment

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random assignment

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assigning participants to expermnetal and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexsisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

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independent variable

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the experimental factor that is manipulted; the variable whose effct is being studied- precise drug dosage and timing in study

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dependent variable

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the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable-questions that assessed the men's responses

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measure of central tendency

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a single socre that represesnts a whole set of scores

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mode

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the frequently occurring score in a distribution

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mean

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the arithmentic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and hen dividing by the number of scores

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median

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the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half ae below it

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range

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the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

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standard deviation

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a computed measure of how m uch scores vary around the mean score

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statistical significance

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a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

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theoretical principles

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principles used in research that is reined through many experiments

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culture

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teh enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

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post modernism

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questions scientific objectivity-influential modern viewpoint