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126 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Surveys
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-major function is to dispell myths
-look at how pp feel -quantify behavior -allow examination of possible cause-effect relationships |
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Questionaires
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-consider what behaviors want to quantify (purpose)
-consider types of questions going to use (open-endend or close-ended) |
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Using previously developed questionaires
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-aviod redesigning
-compare results w/ previous studies using the same instrument |
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What should you ask yourself when desinging questions?
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1. What do I expect to accomplish (purpose of doing survey)
2. What questions of interpertation may arise when I have the data |
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What are the two types of questions?
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1. open-ended: respondents answer in their own words (i.e. short-answer or essay)
2. close-ended: limit the respondent to certain alternatives |
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Pros of open-ended questions
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-more complete answer
-see reason behind answer so learn more -may get non-anticipated information |
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Cons of open-ended questions
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-hard to score b/c answers are in narrative form
-require more effort from respondent |
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When do you use open-ended questions?
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-with small groups
-with preliminary studies b/c get range of answers so can standardize alternatives into close-ended format |
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Pros of close-ended questions
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-easy to score (scoring is usually automated
-easy to answer (don't need to generate answer) -respondents don't have to be as articulated |
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Cons of close-ended questions
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-range of answers are restricted making it hard to reduce complex issue into small set of alternatives
-may not give adequate choices -doesn't reveal reason behind answers |
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When do you use close-ended questions?
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-with large groups
-with refined studies |
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What does using both types of question allow for?
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-easy coding and analyis of data
-insight into respondent reasoning for choice |
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What are the "do's" of writing question?
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-only address one issue per question (no loaded questions, unambigious, and clear)
-avoid bias in question (may be in wording) -make alternatives clear, concise, and easy to understand |
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Mutually exclusive
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-answers should be mutually exclusive
-categories defined so that membership in one ruls out membership in another -only answer one way, no overlap |
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Exhaustive
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-answers should be exhaustive
-categories defined so that all possible cases will fall into one of them -give entire list of possibilities |
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Social Desirability
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-characteristic of certain repsonses that cause ppl to choos that response even if it doesn't represent their true tendency or opinion
-aviod this in questions to avoid bias |
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How do you avoid social desirability
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-use 2 or more forms of a question (verification key)
-word question so each alternative appears equally socially desirable |
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Verification Key
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-colletion of items on a questionaire desigened to detect dishonesty
-show tendency of person to be influenced by social desireability |
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What is a lie scale
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-form of a verification key
-used to determine if answer questions honesty and if take questionaire seriously |
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Acquiscence
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-tendency to aggree w/ a statement on a questionaire regardless of its content
-T/F, agree/disagree are susceptible to bias caused by this |
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How do you decide the format of a questionaire?
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-depends on issue addressed
-answers may take many forms (T/F, multiple choice) so dependent on type of question asked |
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Likert Scale
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-question that asks for a rating of the extent of agreement or disagreement w/ a statement
-rating scale that measures magnitude of opinion -usually 7 pt scale |
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What affect does sequence have on a questionare?
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-sequence items carefully b/c answers to some questions may be biased if they were to follow some others
-order effects (may get tired and not respond as clearly) |
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Branching format
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-convient b/c permit respondent to skip inappropiate questions and move through questionaire more efficientyl
-terms used muse be clearly defined |
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Data Analysis
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-how going to score and analyize questionaire
-what type of statistical analysis going to run -do prior to data collection |
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Methods of administration
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-one that is best depends on circumstances
-face to face, telephone, written, or computarized |
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Pros of face to face
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-develop rapport w/ person
-motivate them to answer carefully -provide clarification if respondent misunderstands -get them to elaborate (more info) |
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Cons of face to face
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-introduc bias b/c of social desirability
-expensive b/c one at a time -safety (danger to interviewer) -difficult to supervise interviewer (fake data) |
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Pros of written
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-low cost
-impersonal (no bias) -usu can complete at leisure |
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Response rate
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in survey research, the percentage of individuals in the sample who return the completed survey
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Cons of written
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-lower response rate
-no clarification -don't know if person takes questionaire seriously -illeterate participants comprimise reliabilit and validity of data |
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Pros of computerized
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-cheap, fast collection, high response rate
-impersonal (reduce bias) -consistent adminstration (everyone takes same way) -reduces noise -check invalid responses -use branching format -avaible 24/7 (high response rate) |
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Cons of computerized
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-illetrate subjects
-difficult to program -since unmonitored, ppl could lie bout age or gender making hard to get truly random sample |
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Pros of telephone
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-cheap
-random-digit dialing (random sample) -rapid -central location for interviewer (reduce cost) -possible to use computer-assisted interviewer |
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Cons of telephone
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-need short questionaire to get respondent of finish
-more personal -difficult to est good rapport -intrusive -reduce external validity b/c only ppl w/ phones and patience are sample |
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Low response rates
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-biased in direction of the more vocal ppl
-biased in direction of those who strongly agree or disagree |
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What is the quality of the data base on?
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-direction function of the return rate
-at least 50% response rate -preferably 90% |
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Response bias
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-refusal to cooperate, failure to return questionaire, or unavaibility of target respondent shoud be recorded
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Five ways to sample
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hapazard sample
purposive sample convenience sample probability sample cluster sample |
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Hapazard Samples
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-population subgroup for whose selection the researcch use hit or miss methods
-almost worthlessq |
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Purposive samples
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-nonrandom sample that is chosen for some characteristic that is possesses
-meet particular definition or selected for reason |
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Pros of purposive samples
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Pro: frequently preferable to random sample b/c can be considered to constitute a population
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Cons of purposive sample
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-error in judgement by researcher selecting sample may influence results
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Convience Sample
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-nonrandom sample chosen for practical reasons
-doesn't come close to sampling all of population -most pys research uses this |
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Probability Samples
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-reseacher knows the probability that any given individual will appear in the sample
-able to apply various stats -usu use random sampling |
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Random Sample
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a sample in which every member of the population has an equal and independent chance of being selected
-controlled by chance alone |
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Random Selection
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-controlled by chance alone
-results from selecting some but not all pairs -any other method of selection could result in some nonindependence among members of a group -statistical independence |
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Sampling Frame
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-a population as it is defined for the purpose of selecting subjects for a study
-population you will work w/ in the study |
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Element
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-individual memeber of a sampling frame
-each individual that falls within the sampling frame |
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Types of random samples
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systematic sample
simple random sample stratified sample |
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Systematic sample
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-a probability sample that is not randomly selected
-fails eqaul-probability part of random selection definition |
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Pros of systematic sample
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-taking every nth person is less work than random method
-some structure to list, results nonrandom -usually survey research b/c easy |
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cons of systematic sample
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-no structure to list, then resulst will be random
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Simple Random samples
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-group chosen from an entire population such that every member of the population has an equal and independent chance of being selected in a signle sample
-used when pop is believed to homogenious w/ respect to question of interest |
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Stratified random sample
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-a random sample in which two or more subsamples are represented according to some predetermined proportion, generally in the same proportion as they exist in the population
-use if pop has identifiable subgroups that are likely to differ in repsonse -treat pop as 2 or more separate subpop. and create a separet random sample of each -accurate |
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Use of stratified random sample
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-oversample some subgroup of the population
-purposely include some group at greater frequency than it is rep. in the population |
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Cluster samples
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-group selected by using clusters or groupings from a larger population
-use if impossible or impractical to number pop. -not as accurate as random sampling |
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Multistage sampling
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-a form of cluster sampling in which the clusters are further broken down by taking samples from each cluster
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True Experiment
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research procedure in which the scientist has complete control over all aspects
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By controlling all variables, the experimenter can...
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-assign subjects randomly to conditions
-control way expt is conducted |
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quasi-experiment
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when a study does not meet the requirements of a true experiment
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Factors
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-IV's of the expt
-have at least 2 -have at least 2 levels (particular value of an IV) |
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Condition (treatment)
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-a group or treatment in an expt
-term to discuss IV -way in which subjects are treated |
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One-group Posttest-Only Design
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-research design that measures the behavior of a single group of subjects after they are given the treatment
-many threats to validity are not controlled for |
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non-equivalent control group
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-group of subjects that is not randomly selected from the same population as the experimental group
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Post-test with non-equivalent control group
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-non-equivalent control group is better than no control group
-quaise expt b/c subjects were not randomly assigned to groups |
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One-group pretest-posttest design
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-measures the behavior of a single group of subjects both before and after treatment
-still threats to validity -addition of nonequivalent control group improves control sufficiently |
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What two elements of design are basic to all experimental designs b/c they control for many threat to validity?
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-existence of a control group or a control condition
-random allocation of subjects into groups |
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With-in subject experiment
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-possible that some variable may influence data as a result of repeated testing
-avoid if think order or sequence effects will be substantial |
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Order effects
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-changes in a subject's performance resulting from the position in which a condition appears in an expt
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Sequence effects
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-changes in a subject's performance resulting from interactions among the conditions themselves
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Counterbalancing
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-controlling for order and sequence effects by arranging that subjects experience the various conditions in different orders
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What are the two strageties to controll for order and sequence effects?
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1. arrange the order of the conditions in such a way that order and sequence effects are controlled w/in subjects
2. control for order and sequence effects bwt subjects |
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Ways to control for order effects in w/in-subjects design
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randomization, block randomization, counter-balancing, reverse counter-balancing, and Latin square
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Randomization
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-randomize order of conditions for each subject
-used when each condition is given several times to each subject |
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Block Randomization
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-order of conditions is randomized but with each condition being presented once before any condition is repeated
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When's block randomization useful?
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-if each condition is presented at least twice and expt requires 2 or more sessions
-if conditions are presented several times to subjects |
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Reverse counter-balancing
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-conditions are presentedd in order the first time and then in reverse order
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When do you use reverse counter-balancing
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-relatively few subjects
-several conditions presented a few times -typical ex. is w/ 3 conditions |
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When does counter-balancing work well?
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-when you suspect that the possible confounding variables will act in a linear manner over conditions
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Latin Square
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-control procedure in which each subject experiences each condition in a different order from other subjects
-incomplete counterbalancing b/c doesn't meet requirement that each condition follow every other condition an equal number of times -sequence is not controlled for -more flexibility in choosing # of subjects to be tested -used when not possible to control for order and sequence effects within subjects |
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two-conditions design
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-simplest research design, involving only 2 conditions
-each subject serves as own control -all subjects experience both conditions in counterbalanced order |
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Why is 2 condition design tested within subjects not used that often?
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1. many expts involve more than 2 conditions
2. possibility of carry over effects from one condition to the other |
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Multiple condition design
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-research design that involves more than 2 conditions
-usually between-subject experiments |
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When do you use multiple condition design?
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1.compare several variables or treatments for effectiveness
2.determine the shape of the function that relates the IV and DV 3.presence of more than one rival hypotheisi must be ruled out |
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Why use the two condition design tested between subjects?
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-possibility of large order or sequence effects is present
-once participants experience one condition they would no longer be naive about the situation |
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Why use the multiple conditions design tested between subjects?
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-study the effects of several levels of one IV
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When is a between-subject design used?
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-when a significant interaction bwt conditions would occur if test within subjects
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When are multiple-condtions, within-subjects experiments common?
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-in perception research, as when one scale the brightness of different intensities of light
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Observational Research
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-observe and record ongoing behavior but do no attempt to change it
-can be experimental or non-experimental |
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Characteristics of true experiments
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-manipulation
-assignment -strong inference about casuality |
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Manipulation
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in an experiment, conditions or variables assigned or presented to a participant
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assignemtn
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pairing a subject with a condition or variable according to the experimenter's plan
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observation
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record of behavior
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correlational research (non-experimental research)
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-measures 2 or more variables to determine the degree of relationship bwt them
-dont manipulate IV, assign subjects, and cant draw strong inferences bout casuality -often used to guide later experimental research |
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Hermeneutics
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-nonexperimental
-study of behavior to understand behavior rather than determine casuality |
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archival research
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-examine existing recordes to obtain data and test hypothesis
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case study
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-exploratory study of an existing situation as a means of creating and testing a hypothesis
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Theory development
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-hypothesis to prediciton to test prediction through observation to evaluate
-if consistent w/ hypothesis keep it -if not consistent w/ hypothesis generate new hypothesis |
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deductive reasoning
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-premise to conclusion
-experimental research -have theoritical concept |
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inductive reasoning
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-specific example to conclusion
-non-experimental research |
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survey
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-assessing public opinion or individual characteristics by the use of questionaire and sampling methods
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What are the 4 non-experimental research methods?
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observational
archival case studies surveys |
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observational research
(ethology: animal study) |
-naturalistic observation
-unobtrusive research -non reactive research |
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naturalistic observation
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observational research of subjects in their natural environment carried out to disturb the subjects as little as possible
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unobtrusive research
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another term for naturalistic observation commonly used in the social sciences
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non reactive research
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another term for naturalistic observation in the social sciences emphasizing the subjects are unaware that they are being studied
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Physical trace
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-unobtrusive measure of behavior that uses physical evidence
-indirect way of studying behavior |
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natural (field) setting
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-environment were behavior happens naturally
-ecologically valid -if in lab, change behavior |
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general rules for good observational research
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-keep careful records
-use a variety of measures -respect privacy of individuals studyign |
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Participant observer research
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-observational research in which the observer participates in a group to record behavior
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When is participant observer research useful?
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-small groups
-seperate from society (cults) -groups which little is know |
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What are the problems or limitations of participant observer research?
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-difficult to gain membership (don't like outsiders)
-may not be ethical to incorporate self into group -dangerous -affect behavior w/ presence |
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What should you consider before starting observational research?
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-operational definitions of constructs (define constructs in term of procedures
-content analysis |
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How can you answer the question of operational defintions?
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-be systematic
-be selective of type of behavior studying -use technology -safe guard data (multiple copies) |
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content analysis
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-ways of interperting behavior
-ideally want both manifest and latent content analysis -also ideally want 2 or more coder for coding reliability |
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manifest content
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number of times a word appears in text
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latent content
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way a word appears in text
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protocols
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-script
-give script to ppl running expt to make sure its run same way w/ everyone |
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pilot study
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-small scale study
-begin study w/ one to see if get certain results |
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Archival research
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-done on files already out there
-do it b/c data already exists, may be more ethical, or make more legistical sense |
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archival data
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factual info in existing records
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limitations on archival research
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-data collection isn't controlled by researcher so data may be inadequate
-may be impossible to rule out other hypothesis |
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meta-analysis
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when many expts are run, you can run analysis on expts
-ie 9 out of 10 studies show... |
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case studies
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-observational and/or archival methods
-examine individual instances of some phenomenia (ongoing situation) |
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characteristics of case studies
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-researcher must be opertunistic
-usually in less than ideal situations so researcher doesn't have control over conditions -can't draw inferences bout casuality |
