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123 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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A researcher examines the effect of cigarette ads on smoking behavior? What type of variable is the cigarette ad?
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Independent
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True or false:
Cross sectional studies are appropriate for describing the status of phenomena for for describing relationships among phenomena at a fixed point in time |
True
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Which is the independent variable?
What is the effect of noise levels on postoperative pain or blood pressure fluctuations in ICU patients? |
Noise Levels
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What are the criteria for an experimental research design?
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1. Randomization
2. Control Group 3. Independent variable |
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What are descriptive studies?
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They are studies that describe the incidence, prevalence, or particular characteristics about a population
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What type of quantitative research design looks for cause and effect between an intervention variable and an outcome variable?
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Experimental design
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Persons with or without a disease are studies and there is a backward look for exposures is an example of what kind of study?
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Case-control
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True or False
"how prevalent is this phenomena" would be asked in a quantitative descriptive study? |
True
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Is the following a directional hypothesis?
The fewer social supports an elderly person has, the more likely she or he is to be institutionalized. |
yes
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What is the dependent variable?
Is the quality of life of nursing home residents affected by their functional ability or hearing acuity? |
Quality of life
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What type of sampling divides the population into homogeneous strata from which elements are selected at random?
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Stratified random sampling
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Cronbach's alpha is used to determine which attribute of an instrument?
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Internal consistence
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How is sampling defined?
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Process of selecting a subset of the population to represent the entire population
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What type of validity describes the degree to which findings of a research study are applicable to a larger population?
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External validity
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What does a frequency distribution show?
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The frequency of each measure of a variable
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In what section of a report is the reader acquainted with the research problem?
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Introduction
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What is grey literature?
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Unpublished report
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What is publication bias?
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Stems from the under representation of non significant findings in the published literature.
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What will constructing a forest plot determine?
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Heterogeneity
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Should meta-analysis be used when results from studies are conflicting?
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No
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What is considered an advantage for meta-analysis?
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Advanced power
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What is a conceptual definition?
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Presents the abstract or theoretic meaning of the concept being studied.
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What is an operational definition?
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Specifies the operations that researchers must perform to collect the required information.
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In experimental research do researchers actively introduce an intervention or treatment?
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Yes! These studies are designed to test causal relationships-to test whether the intervention caused changes in the dependent variable.
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What is evidence-based practice (EBP)?
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The use of the best clinical evidence in making patient care decisions and such evidence typically comes from research conducted by nurses and other health care professionals
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What is inductive reasoning?
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The process of developing generalizations from specific observations
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What is deductive reasoning?
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The process of developing specific predictions from generalized principles.
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What is the highest level of evidence?
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Systematic reviews of randomized controlled trials
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What is the lowest level of evidence?
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Opinions of authorities
Expert committees |
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What is meta-analysis?
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The technique for integrating quantitative research findings statistically. Individual studies are the unit of analysis and meta-analysis provides a convenient, objective method for integrating a body of findings and of observing patterns that might not have been detected
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What is metasynthesis?
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Involves integrating qualitative findings on a specific topic.
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What is an independent variable?
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The cause of something. What is manipulated.
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What is a dependent variable?
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The measured effect of something. Dependent on the independent variable
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What is the grounded theory tradition?
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Seeks to describe and understand the key social, psychological, and structural processes that occur in a social setting.
Researchers strive to generate comprehensive explanations of phenomena that are grounded in reality. |
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What kind of theory does this describe:
Researchers studied the process of practicing spirituality in relation to health promotion and disease management among African Americans |
Grounded theory
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What is phenomenology?
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Concerned with the lived experiences of humans. The approach to thinking about what life experiences or people are like and what they mean. Asks questions such as, what is the essence of this phenomenon as experienced by these people?
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What type of study is this an example of?
Researchers studied the lived experience and meaning of time in the oldest old. The study involved in-depth interviews with 19 elders older than 85 |
Phenomenology
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What is ethnography?
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Stems from anthropology and provides a framework for studying the patterns, lifeways, and experiences of a defined cultural group in a holistic fashion. Typically engage in extensive fieldwork and try to participate as much as possible in the culture being studied. Goal is to learn from rather than to study
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What is saturation and who uses it?
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Saturation occurs when themes and categories in the data become repetitive and redundant, such that no new information can be gained by further data collection. Used by qualitative researchers.
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What is reliability?
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Refers to the accuracy and consistency of information obtained in a study. The term is most often associated with the methods used to measure research variables.
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What is validity?
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Concerns the soundness of the study's evidence and the degree of inferential support the evidence yields. Also an important criterion for evaluating methods to measure variables.
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What is a mediating variable?
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A variable that mediates or acts like a "go-between" in a causal chain linking two other variables.
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What is generalizability?
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The criterion used in quantitative studies to assess the extent to which the findings can be applied to other groups and settings.
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Processes, social structures, social interactions
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Grounded theory
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Experience, lied experience, meaning, essence
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Phenomenolgy
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Culture, roles, lifeways, cultural behavior
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Ethnography
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Does a testable research hypothesis state the expected relationship between the independent and dependent variable?
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Yes
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What is a directional hypothesis?
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Specifies not only the existence but the expected direction of the relationship between variables.
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What is a null hypothesis?
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A hypothesis that states their is no relationship between independent and dependent variables.
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What is randomization?
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Every participant has an equal chance of being included in any group. Eliminates bias.
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What is a crossover design?
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Involves exposing participants to more than one treatment.
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What is a quasi-experiment?
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Like a true experiment but lacks randomization. So the signature of this is an intervention in the absence of randomization.
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What is a case-control design?
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Cases with a certain condition are compared with controls without it. It is a retrospective design
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What is a cohort design?
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A prospective design that starts out with a presumed cause and then goes forward to the presumed effect. More costly but much stronger than retrospective studies.
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What is a cross-sectional design?
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Involves the collection of data at one period of time.
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What is a longitudinal design?
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A collection of data at more than one point in time over an extended period.
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What is statistical power?
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The ability of the design to detect true relationships among variables. Used in a large sample size
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What is internal validity?
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The extent to which it is possible to make an inference that the independent variable is truly causing or influencing the dependent variable. Experiments tend to have a high degree of internal validity because randomization to different groups enables researchers to rule out competing explanations
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What is external validity?
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Concerns inferences about the extent to which relationships observed in a study hold true for different people, conditions, and settings. Concerned with if relationships observed in a study can be generalized to a larger populations.
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What is an emic perspective?
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Refers to the way the members of the culture regard their world-an insiders view
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What is an etic perspective?
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The outsiders' interpretation of the experience of that culture
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What theory uses constant comparison?
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Grounded theory
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What is narrative analysis?
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Focuses on story as the object of inquiry to determine how individuals make sense of their lives. Taken from interviews
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What is participatory action research?
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Participation and collaboration between researchers and study participants. Goal is to produce knowledge and action.
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In Morse's theory in qualitative research is it possible to calculate sample size?
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No
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What is sampling?
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The process of selecting a proportion of the population to represent the entire population
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What is snowball sampling?
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Sample members are asked to refer other people who meet eligibility criteria
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What is probability sampling?
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Involves the random selection of elements from a population.
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What is simple random sampling?
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Laborious process which establishes a sampling frame and randomly selecting samples from this.
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What is stratified random sampling?
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The population is first divided into two or more strata. Population is subdivided and elements are selected at random. Often based on such demographic elements such as age or gender.
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What is cluster sampling?
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Successive random sampling of units. More economic and practical than other types of probability sampling.
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What is systematic sampling?
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Involves the selection of every kth case from a list such as every 10th person on a patient list.
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What is power analysis?
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A way for researchers to estimate how large their samples should be to adequately test their research hypothesis.
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What is the Likert scale?
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Scale in which respondents are asked to indicate how much they agree or disagree with the statement
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How many variables must a research hypothesis involve?
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At least two
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What is nominal measurement?
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The lowest level of measurement involves using numbers to simply categorize attributes. The numbers do not have quantitative meaning. Examples include blood type
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What is ordinal measurement?
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Ranks objects based on their relative standing on an attribute. Example ordering people from heaviest to lightest. This type of measurement orders object but does not tell us how much greater one level is than the other
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What is interval measurement?
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Occurs when researchers can specify the ranking of objects on an attribute and the distance between those objects. Example: IQ scale
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What is ratio measurement?
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Highest level of measurement. Have a rational meaningful zero. Example is temperature scale
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What is reliability?
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The consistency with which an instrument measures the attribute
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What is validity?
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The degree to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure
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What is standard deviation?
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Summarizes the average amount of deviation of values from the mean. 68% fall within 1 SD of the mean with 95% between 2 SD from the mean.
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What is a correlation coefficient?
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Describes the intensity and direction of a relationship
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What is Pearson's r?
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A correlation coefficient designating the magnitude of relationship between two interval or ratio level variables.
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What is the absolute risk?
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The proportion of people who experience an undesirable outcome in each group.
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What is the odds ratio?
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The proportion of subjects with the adverse outcome relative to those without it.
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What is a type 1 error?
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When researchers reject the null hypothesis that is actually true. A false-positive conclusion.
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What is type 2 error?
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Acceptance of a false null hypothesis. A false-negative conclusion
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What is a level of significance?
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The probability of making a type 1 error. Lowering the risk of a type 1 error increases the risk of a type 2 error.
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How can you reduce the risk of a type 2 error?
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Increase sample size
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What is beta?
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The probability of committing a type 2 error which can be estimated through power analysis.
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What are parametric tests?
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-Focus on population parameters
-Involve certain assumptions about variables being analyzed -Require measurement on at least at interval scale (assume normal distribution and use interval or ratio level data) |
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What are nonparametric tests?
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They do not estimate parameters and involve less restrictive assumptions about the shape of the distribution of the critical variables. Most often used when the data has been measured on a nominal or ordinal scale.
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What is a t-test?
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The procedure used to test the statistical significance of a difference between the means of two groups. This is a parametric test
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What is ANOVA?
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Used to test mean group differences of three or more groups.
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What is the difference between a one tailed and a two tailed t-test?
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A one tailed t-test is directional
A two tailed t-test in nondirectional |
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What value should power at least have?
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.80
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What is the Chi-square test?
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Used to test the hypothesis about the proportion of cases in different categories, as in a contingency table. It is a nonparametric test so distribution is not normal and uses a nominal or ordinal scale
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What is the standard deviation of an index?
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Variability
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Is a t-test a parametric or nonparametric statistical procedure?
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parametric
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Are variables calculated as independent or dependent in multiple linear regression?
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Yes
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Can correlation coefficient be considered to be both descriptive and inferential?
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Yes
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What are inferential statistics used for?
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To generalize to a population based on data from a sample
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What kind of descriptive statistic is correlation coefficient?
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Bivariate
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Do parametric tests make an assumption about the shape and distribution in a population?
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yes
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What is a conceptual definition?
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The abstract meaning of a variable that is usually based on theory
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What is an operational definition?
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A way of defining a variable that makes it measurable in the real world
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What design always compare people with the condition to people without it?
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Case Control
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Does a strong internal validity mean a strong level of causality?
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Yes! And a study with low internal validity means little or no level of causality
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What is the Hawthorne effect?
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A type of threat to external validity when people act differently because they know they are a subject
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Should a systematic review include grey literature?
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No consensus
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Is a conclusion from a systematic review free of bias?
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No. The systematic review could have been done badly and there may be an inappropriate aggregation of studies.
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What is an effect size index?
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A central feature of meta-analysis
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What is Pearson's R?
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-Both a descriptive and inferential statistic
-Tests that the relationship between two variables in not zero |
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What is purposive sampling?
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Based on the belief that researchers' knowledge about the population can be used to hand-pick sample members. Often used by qualitative researchers. It is done so researchers can deliberately choose the type of cases that will best contribute to the study
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What is power analysis?
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A way for researchers to estimate how large their samples should be to adequately test their research hypothesis.
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What is maximum variation sampling?
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A type of purposive sampling that involves deliberately selecting cases with a wide range of variation on dimensions of interest
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What is the difference between systematic reviews and literature reviews?
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A systematic review is a thorough examination of an issue using standards and searching many scientific articles
A literature review shows highlights of an issue through varying degrees of thoroughness. There are no standards in the process and include things like essays, opinions and theoretical literature. |
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What is an odds ratio and when is it used?
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An odds ratio is used for case control studies. It is the ratio of subjects with the adverse outcome relative to those without it. An odds ratio of 1 means no correlation.
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What is a contingency table?
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A frequency distribution cross tabulating two ordinal or nominal variables.
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What is triangulation?
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Uses multiple sources to get the truth.
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What is an effect size index?
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Provides reader and clinicians with estimates about the magnitude of effects within the research sample. Basically summarizes the strength of the effect of an independent variable on the dependent variable.
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What is multiple regression analysis?
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A way to explain or predict a dependent variable with multiple independent variables. uses for correlation. Use interval or ratio level variables.
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