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150 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What 4 tissues produce steroids?
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Adrenal cortex, ovaries, testicles, and the placenta
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What type of hormones does the adrenal cortex make? Name the three zones of the cortex. What are the primary hormones they produce?
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Adrenocortical hormones. Z. glomerulosa, Z.fasiculata, and Z. reticularis--they produce mainly aldosterone and cortisol
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Where are estrogen and progesterone produced? What is the first 14 days of the cycle and what hormone is predominately produced then? What is 14-28 days of the cycle and what hormone is predominately produced then?
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Estrogen and progesterone--The first 14 days is the Follicular Stage(mostly estrogens) and the second 14 is the Luteal Phase(mostly progesterone)
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What produces hormones in the testicles?
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The interstitial cells of Leydig
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Does the placenta produce steroids?
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YES
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What is the parent molecule of steroids?
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Cholesterol
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What are the two functions of testes?
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Spermatogenisis and Steroidalgenisis
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Where do the testes develop? When do they migrate downward? What channel do they pass through? What is attached to each?
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Rear of the abdominal cavity--They migrate around the 7th month through the Inguinal Canal--the spermatic cord is attached to each one
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What is the Inguinal Canal?
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Channel the testes migrate through to reach the scrotum
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Can spermatogenisis occur at 35 degrees C?
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YES--it can't occur at 37
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Can steroidalgenisis occur at 37 degrees celsius?
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Yes
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What is the countercurrent blood flow to and from the testes? What is a problem that can occur?
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The Pampiniform Plexus--a vericoele can disrupt the flow and MAKE YA STERILE!
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What muscle raises and lowers the testes? Based on?
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The Cremasteric Muscle--temperature
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Name the term for an undescended testicle.
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Cryptorchidism
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When is cryptorchidism most common?
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Premy babies
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How are the teses organized?
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200-300 cone shaped lobules--1-3 seminiferous tubules per lobule
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What are the two types of cells in the testes?
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Germ cells and Sertoli Cells
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Are Germ cells undergoing mitosis?
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No--meiosis
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How do Sertoli Cells function as gametes?
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They don't--they support the gametes through many different functions
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Some germ cells don't mature all the way...what happens?
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The Sertoli cells phagocytose them
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Why is a blood testes barrier necessary? What cells make up this barrier?
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Sperm cells do not appear until well after the immune system has learned self and non-self. They must be protected by the Sertoli cells
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What nourishes sperm cells?
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The Sertoli cells
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The sperm need a way to get out of the testes..how does this happen?
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The Sertoli cells secrete tubular fluid
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Spermatogenisis needs a lot of what to occur? What ensures this amount? What produces this?
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Testosterone--Androgen Binding Protein produced by the Sertoli Cells
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Where is inhibin made?
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In the Sertoli cells
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Sertoli Cells increase the activity of what?
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The enzyme P450 Aromatase
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The sperm must be released from the the edge of the lumen of the seminiferous tubule..what assists with this and what releases it?
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Plasminogen activating factor released by Sertoli Cells
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Sertoli cells increase the synthesis of what? Why?
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Transferrin--high iron conc. needed for sperm production
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Mullerian-inhibiting factor is produced where?
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The Sertoli Cells
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P450 Aromatase can be used to produce what? Where?
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It converts Testosterone into Estrogens--Leydig Cells
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What is in the spaces between seminiferous tubules?
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Cells of Leydig
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What two androgens are produced by Leydig Cells?
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testosterone and DHT
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Where is DHT produced? What has a high concentration of it?
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In the Cells of Leydig--fat tissue
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What happens when synthetic testosterone is taken?
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Testosterone insensitivity occurs and the high levels of estrogens begin to be expressed--also some of the synthetic testosterone canbe converted to estrogens--You can get bitch tits
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How long would the epididymis be if it was stretched out? What is a major function of this structure?
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4-5 meters long--Sperm are stored and mature here
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Where do sperm mature?
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The epididymis
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What leads away from the epididymis?
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The vas deferens
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Vasectomies allow what but not what?
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Ejaculation but not sperm in the semen
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Sperm makes up what percentage of the semen volume? What about the rest?
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Less than half--the seminal vesicles contribute 60%
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What contains fructose and two other components?
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Semen--prostaglandins and fibrinogen
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Where is the prostate? Why is this a problem? What does it produce?
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Around the urethra near the bladder--Prostatic Hypertrophy in older men prevents urination--an alkaline secretion that fights the acidic environment of the vagina
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Erection is a ___ phenomenon caused by ____. Ejaculation is a _____ phenomenon caused by_____.
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Parasympathetic caused by dilation of the arterioles supplying the penis--Sympathetic caused by contraction of the epididymis, vas deferens, and prostate
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Describe the female analog of erection and ejaculation.
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Vasodilation of arterioles to the clitoris and labia and fluid production mirror erection and contraction of the pelvic musculature mirror female ejaculation
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Describe the three surges of testosterone that occur in life and what they cause.
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1st: 8 to 18 weeks of gestation that cause the development of the male reproductive tract 2nd: 2 to 3 months after parturition with an unknown result 3rd: Puberty that causes development of secondary sexual characteristics.
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When does testosterone fall off?
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Never--there is no male menopause although there is a more pronounced decline around 60
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What determines the overall sex of the child?
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The chromosome of the sperm the fertilizes the ovum--X or Y
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By what week of gestation is a gonad present? What determines the sex of the gonad? What role does the hypothalamus play in this determination?
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The 6th week--the presence of a Y chromosome that causes the SRY Region to code for testicular determining fatcor--the hypothalamus has yet to be formed so it has no role in this process
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The clitoris develops from what? What other structure develops from it?
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The genital tubercles--the glands penis
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The penile shaft develops from what? What else develops from this structure?
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The genital fold--the labia minor
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What can the urogenital sinus develop into?
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The vagina and the prostate
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The labia major and the scrotum can both develop from what structure?
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The genital swelling
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What is the default genital form? What must the indifferent gonad be exposed to to differ from this default?
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Female--DHT
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The Wolffian system develops into what structures?
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Epididymis, vas deferens, and seminal vesicle
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What develops into the vagina, oviducts, and uterus?
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The Mullerian system--BUT IT DOES NOT FORM THE VAGINA THAT DEVELOPS FROM THE GENITAL UROGENITAL SINUS IT FORMS THE UPPER VAGINA
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The Fetal Testes produce what under the influence of what?
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Testosterone to support the Wolffian system, Mullerian Inhibiting Factor to destroy the Mullerian system--it releases under the influence of HCG
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Testosterone doesn't have many peripheral functions. Why?
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It must be converted by 5-alpha-reductase into DHT--this causes the development of the external genitalia
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The lack of what in XY fetuses can cause what problem?
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5-alpha-reductase--causes external genitalia to be female
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A subject with androgenital syndrome would have what type of gonads? Why?
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Male gonads--androgenital syndrome causes the production of too many androgens
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A fetus has no mullerian or wolffian tracts and is developing female external genitalia..what is wrong?
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Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome
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The male brain is ____. The female brain is ____. ____ causes the male brain. Why?
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A-cyclic--Cyclic---Fetal estrogens---because females have an alpha-fetal protein which binds estrogens in the brain and causes the default status which is cyclic
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Does testosterone play a role in testicular descent?
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YES
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Androgens play what very general roles?
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The development of primary and secondary sexual characteristics
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Primary male sexual characteristics involve what?
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Spermatogenisis; growth, maturation, and maintenance of the reproductive tract; libido
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What are some less commonly known about secondary sexual characteristics?
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Baldness, closure of epiphyseal plates, increased erythropoeisis, fat deposition, increased androgen-binding protein
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What two factors have been implicated in the onset of puberty?
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Body weight and melatonin levels
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What happens in animals who have had their pineal gland removed? Why?
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They experience an early puberty--melatonin inhibits FSH and LH levels
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With old age in males comes what? Would a 75 year old man have higher or lower levels of FSH and LH than you?
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Gradual decline in testosterone and a gradual decline in sensitivity to LH and FSH--higher because spermatogenisis is decreased and this typically feeds back negatively to FSH production
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What chemicals have we been exposed to that have caused negative changes of the past 70 years?
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Xenoestrogens
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What is different about the estrous cycle compared to the menstrual cycle?
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No endometrial bleeding--the bleeding that occurs during the animal's heat is from vaginal secretions during the period when the egg is in the oviducts and ready to be fertilized
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Follopia made a critical error...what was it?
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He observed that the eggs were in the fallopian tubes during vaginal discharge period around day 14 in dogs so he concluded that during human menstrual discharge was when the egg was available for fertilization so the best time to avoid pregnancy was as far away from this time as possible--day 14
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Where is the germinal epithelium? What is deep to this layer? Where are the ova stored?
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It is the layer that surround each ovary--the outer zone called the cortex--in the cortex
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What is the stroma?
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The center portion of the ovaries
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Extending from each side of the ovaries are the _____. The have ____ which direct the ova into the first thing.
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Oviducts--fimbriae
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Where does fertilization occur?
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In the first 1/3 portion of the oviduct
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List the three layers of the uterus
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Epimetrium--Myometrium--Endometrium
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True or false--the epimetrium and myometrium are under horomonal control.
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False--the ENDOMETRIUM and myometrium are under hormonal control
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The cervix undergoes certain changes at different times..what are they?
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It secretes cervical mucous that is thin and watery during ovulation--during pregnancy it is thick and viscous
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What lines the vagina? Where is the hymen?
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Mucous secreting cells--at the DISTAL end of the vagina these folds of vascularized tissue partially cover the orifice
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You are referring to the entire external female genitalia..what term do you use? What does this include?
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The Vulva--the Mons pubis, labia, clitoris, and vestibule (the MLVC)
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What is the space between the labia minora? What does it contain?
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The vestibule--it contains the hymen, vaginal orifice, and openings from mucus producing glands
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What does the corpus luteum become if no pregnancy occurs? True or false--this structure can still produce estrogens and progesterones.
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Corpus albicans--false
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What forms the corpus luteum?
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The granulosa and thecal cells
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What are the three phases of the endometrial cycle?
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Menstrual, proliferative, and secretory
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What influences the thickening of the endometrium during the proliferative phase?
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The developing follicle
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During what phase is the endometrium the thickest?
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The secretory endometrial phase
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The cervix has a two-phase cycle...what are the phases? Describe each.
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The estrogen and luteal phase--the estrogen phase's mucus is thin and alkaline(dependent on estrogen); the luteal phase's mucus is thick and acidic(dependent on progesterone)
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The breasts have a two-phase cycle..what are the phases? Describe each?
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Follicular phase and progesterone phase--follicular involves deposition of adipose, increased size and pigmentation--progesterone phase sustains these changes
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What is needed in order for lactation to occur?
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Pregnancy hormones
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What estrogen is most important in the non-pregnant female?
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Estradiol 17 Beta
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Estrogen does what to the endometrium and myometrium? To cervical mucus?
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Increases endometrial proliferation and myometrial excitability--it thins cervical mucus
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Estrogen has an effect on granulose cells...what is it?
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Formation of LH receptors
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Estrogen has an effect on bones as well as muscles...what are both?
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It favors bone deposition and epiphyseal plate closure--it favors protein deposition in muscles
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What features does estrogen cause that are considered to be "womanly characteristics?
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Fat deposition at the thighs and hips, softening and vascularization of the skin, and breast increase
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Estrogen has a favorable effect on cholestero..what is it?
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Increased HDL's and decreased LDL's
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Early birth control pills caused a problem..what was it and why?
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Thromboemboluli--occurred because estrogen causes an increase in the production of clotting factors
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What is estrogen's effect on hair deposition?
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None--hair deposition is due to androgens
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What is progesterone's effect on the uterus? The breasts? The cervix? The electrolytes?
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Increases endometrium secretory capacity and reduces myometrium excitability--lobule and alveoli development--cervical mucus thickening--decrease in Na+ retention
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You can tell what stage of the cycle a female is in based on what effect caused by what hormone?
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Increase in temperature caused by progesterone
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What are six ways to prevent pregnancy?
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Inhibiting ovulation(the Pill), barriers, chemicals, sterilization, preventing implantation, and avoiding the fertile period
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What does a birth control pill contain? What is the schedule of medication? How does this work?
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Synthetic estrogen and progesterone--three weeks on one week off--high levels of estrogen and progesterone keep FSH and LH levels low so the the follicle cannot develop or rupture
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True or false--endometrial development is prevented by birth control pills
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False
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What is a minipill?
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Progesterone-only preparation that thickens cervical mucus to prevent fertilization
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What is nonoxynol-9?
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The active ingredient in spermicides
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Name the two types of sterilization.
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Vasectomy and tubuligation
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Name the four types of implantation prevention measures.
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IUD, Morning after Pill, RU486, and Prostaglandins
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Which implantation preventer functions by administering a high estrogen dose to increase motility of the oviducts and uterus? Which one is a progesterone dose?
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Morning after Pill, RU486
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Estrase/Climera is a what? Prescribed for what?
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Estradiol(synthetic estrogen) prescribed for post-menopausal osteoporosis
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Pregnant mares provide what drug?
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Conjugated estrogens (Premarin)
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Progestin is administered for what?
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Abnormal bleeding during cycles
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Estrogen/Progesterone combo drugs are used to treat what? Name some. What can these help prevent?
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Used to treat menopausal symptoms and prostate cancer in males--Prempro and Estratest--they help prevent endometrial carcinoma chances because estrogen alone is dangerous
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Semen gets into the oviducts way faster than it should be able to due to what factors?
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Prostaglandins and oxytocin in the semen increase myometrial motility
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Of the sperm deposited in the vagina, how many reach the vicinity of the ovum?
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200 out of 260 million
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Describe the viability of sperm and the ova in the female reproductive tract
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Sperm are viable for 2-3 days/maximally viable for 24 hours--ova are viable for 12-24 hours/maximally viable for 8-12 hours
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How does the zygote implant in the uterus?
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The blastocyst cells eat a hole in the endometrium and then attach to it
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How is the corpus luteum prevented from degenerating to the corpus albicans?
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Initially the trophoblastic cells of the blastocyst and then the placenta produce HCG to maintain the corpus luteum
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What hormone is HCG most like?
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LH
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How is pregnancy detected?
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HCG levels--only pregnant women produce HCG(and testicular cancer males)
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Why is HCG necessary in male fetuses?
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It stimulates testosterone production before week 8 because the anterior pituitary has not yet developed to produce LH
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During pregnancy, where are estrogen and progesterone produced? What is the most common pregnancy estrogen?
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1st trimester—corpus luteum; 2nd and 3rd trimesters—placenta; Estriol
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What can the mother not make that the fetal adrenal glands must produce?
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DHEA and 16-OH DHEA
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Is the placenta able to produce estrogens by itself?
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No
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What effects does estriol have on pregnant females?
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Enlargement of breasts, external genitalia, and the uterus as well as relaxation of the pubic ligaments
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How is the free floating zygote nourished?
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Decidual cells in the uterus are induced to produce nutrients for the free floating zygote
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The fetus must produce cortisol and aldosterone...how?
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Progesterone is used as a substrate
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What pregnancy maintaining functions does placental progesterone provide?
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Decreases myometrial activity, decreases prostaglandin activity, and inhibits oxytocin sensitivity
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Why does pregnancy-induced diabetes occur?
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Because HCS causes insulin insensitivity in the mother
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What hormone is used to assess the health of the fetus? What else does this do?
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HCS--increases fetal somatomedins
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What does relaxin do? What produces it?
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Relaxation of pelvic floor and softening of the cervix as well as reducing myometrial contractions--produced by the corpus luteum and then decidual cells of the endometrium
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What signals the onset of sheep parturition?
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The fetus
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True or false--there is a change in humans in the concentrations of estrogen and progesterone at the end of pregnancy to increase motility of the uterus
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False--this occurs in other species, but not humans(although undetectable local changes may occur in humans)
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The cervix is stretched..what is released? What does it do? What is a pharmacological application?
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Oxytocin--hastens parturition that has already begun--Pitocin is a synthetic oxytocin used to hasten parturition
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What affects oxytocin sensitivity? How?
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Changes in estrogen and progesterone levels--estrogen increases receptor sensitivity and progesterone decreases it
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What is an example of a fetal endocrine signal? Does this occur in humans?
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ACTH release from fetal sheep causes release of cortisol from the fetal adrenal glands, which increases estrogens and prostaglandin synthesis and also causes lung development and cardiovascular completion(shunt closure)--the does NOT occur in humans
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What is true about human anencephalic gestations?
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They are longer than normal pregnancies, so there seems to be some brain-induced effect on parturition
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What causes Braxton-Hicks contractions?
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The head turning downward and stretching the cervix, which causes the myometrium to contract and push the fetus down even more
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What is the functional unit of the breast? Describe its structure
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The alveolus--it has a secretory epithelium layer and a myoepithelium layer
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What hormones affect the breasts and how?
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Estrogen causes growth and development--Progesterone causes secretory nature and increased development--Prolactin causes secretion of milk into the alveoli--HCS increases the density of prolactin receptors--oxytocin causes milk letdown through the contraction of myoepithelium cells
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What do estrogen and progesterone do to prolactin? How is this overcome?
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Inhibit its release--the placenta releases both of these hormones, and when it is expelled at birth, there is far less of both to inhibit prolactin release
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What is the first milk from the nipple? How is it different? What causes its release?
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Clostrum--lower in fat and lactose and higher in protein immunoglobulins--the initial release of oxytocin
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What is released in response to suckling? How is this used as a treatment post-partum?
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Oxytocin release that causes MILK LETDOWN--it is used to reduce uterine bleeding and to cause the myometrium to contract down and restore the size of the uterus
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Who suffers from amenorrhea? What is this known as?
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Athletes--Athletic Menstrual Irregularity
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What might be a reason for taking long-term birth control pills? What can such drugs induce with regards to menstrual frequency?
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Dysmenorrhea(painful menstruation)--Oligomenorrhea
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What can athletic activity in women cause with regards to hormone levels? What can eventually occur?
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Lower progesterone levels in the luteal phase and decreased estrogen in the follicular phase--early menopause with osteoporosis
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Endometriosis involves what? What are the symptoms? Who gets it?
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Deposition of endometrial tissue where it does not belong, particularly in the oviducts and ovaries--severe pain, scarring, adhesion, and even sterilization via blockage--Type A women in developed nations
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Name and describe the three theories associated with endometriosis.
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Retro-Grade Menstrual Theory states that some flow finds its way back to the oviducts to begin growing—Embryogenic Implantation Theory states that undeveloped endometrial tissue is misplaced during fetal development and actives later—Endometrial Metastasis states that tissue escapes to the lymphatic or circulatory system and migrates, much like a cancer
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How is endometriosis treated? Side effects?
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With GnRH suppressing androgens--menopause and hair growth(gross)
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Why might you take a prostaglandin inhibitor? Name some?
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Taken before menstruation, it can reduce dysmenorrhea--Motrin, Aspirin, Neprasin
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When does PMS occur and in whom?
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During 10-day premenstrual period--occurs in females in their 30's
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Estrogen promotes what skeletal activity? So what can happen during menopause? What are some treatments?
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Bone density--osteoporosis--Evista(stimulates estrogen receptors on bone), Fosamax(inhibits osteoclast activity), and Miacalcin(salmon calcitonin)
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What is administered as a nasal spray and contains a salmon derivative?
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Miacalcin, which is salmon calcitonin that works to decrease Ca++ leaching from the bones
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