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214 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Society and the Lutheran message
Explanations for the success of the Lutheran message form 1520 onwards:
Criticism of the church as an institution:
Connection between Luther and German Patriotism:
Support by humanists (since 1519/20)
Luther’s religious impact:
Luther's Criticism of the church as an institution:
-Denounced the abuses that had been complained about for decades w/ new force and new perspective.
-Even Erasmus agreed with his criticism.
-An anti-clerical attitude can be observed in many parts of Germany.
Connection between Luther and German Patriotism:
Could serve as a focal point for German nationalist sentiments (found with humanists like Hutten) given life by Luther’s attacks of Rome in To Christian Nobility which many Germans could agree with
Support by humanists (since 1519/20)
• Correspondence with Humanist struggle against obscurantism and ritualism.
• Liked back to the original languages of Bible
• Originally many humanist liked Luther (Erasmus, Lazarus Spengler, Bucer, Capito, Hutten) but later only younger humanists (w/ exception of Capito in Strasbourg)
Luther’s religious impact (why people accepted it)
• Addressed religious expectations:
• certainty in the face of death
• Immediate access to God
• Saintliness in the world

• Re-evaluation of preaching
• Service in the language of the faithful
• Critical re-evaluation of external elements and emphasis on internal piety
• Renewed attention to message of bible
(in many layers of society, these ideas were already accepted)
Luther's New morality
Monks and nuns had reasons to leave order (when thought they weren’t called)
Chaplains, vicars and other preachers (often badly paid) were integrated into the community instead of being dependent on an ecclesiastical hierarchy.
The above could now get married.
(The established clergy were much more hesitant-bishops rarely followed path of Luther)
Urban Phenomenon of Reformation
50 out of 85 free imperial cities, the Reformation was able to take root.
Literacy increased.
Lay people felt empowered through Luther’s message to continue to widen policy that that already begun in 15th C. – gap between clergy and laity largely close (clergy now paid taxes).

Working class favored the public care (in cities like Strasbourg [1523] and Nuremberg])
Middle Class liked the reevaluation of manual labor found in Luther’s writings and monasteries being turned back to the community for schools, etc.
Upper Class less enthusiasm, but did like the increased political power of the urban community.
Knights – lower nobility = crisis of identity in early 1500’s and interested in Luther’s call to Christian nobility – hoped for possible secularize the positions of clergy and to regain position in Empire.
Peasantry – attracted by autonomy of laity and local congregation and creating new laws based on the bible (Jubilee principle was influential in onset of peasant’s war)
THE PEASANTS’ WAR Date
1524-1525
Other earlier peasants’ movements
• 18 Rebellions between 1423-1517
• Bundschuh Movement (1493-1517) – named so for tied shoe on flag
• Poor Conrad’ Rebellion (1514)
Attraction of Peasant's War in relation to Luther
1. Here, the common man could express beliefs
2. These were restricted to certain regions in South and Southwest
3. The peasants resisted the princes attempt at a uniform government, increase in taxes, and reduction of peasants’ rights, common property and its use.
4. They wanted to ‘old law’ -- Turned into the ‘divine law’ intensified with the Reformation
Peasents’ War facts
(deaths, demands, reason for fighting, support, how did it end?)
• Death tolls up to 100,000
• Accumulation of uprisings (Salzburg, Tyol, Allgäu, Swabia, Upper Rhine Valley, Franconia, and Thuringia)
• Peasants demanded: reduction in taxes, abolition of bondage, restitution of old rights for hunting and grazing, and right of local community to choose pastor (summarized in 12 Articles of the Upper Swaben Peasants (drafted by Lotzer and Schappeler in March, 1525)
• Thomas Müntzer (from Thuringia) supported the peasants
o Used it to propagate his millenarian and communist ideas
• Certain knights and burgers supported it due to its success
• Mixture of fight to gain certain rights and raw violence.

• Peasants’ War ended when they were crushed near Frankenhausen by the allied army of the princes of Hesse, Soxony, and Brunswick (after the constitution of the city of Mühlhausen was abolished).
• Münster was beheaded
LUTHER’S ‘ROLE’ in Peasant's War
Luther’s treatise against the Peasants’ War
Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants
Here he called the princes to attack them without mercy and accused the peasants of 3 things:
1. They appointed themselves as judges
2. Broken the peace of the land through their robberies and murders
3. Blasphemed God through citing the Gospel (Rom. 13 sts only authorities can use sword)
Others who rejected the Peasants’ War (besides Luther)
Melanchthon
Bucer
Brenz
And many others

But Luther saw it worse, in eschatological sense, against the Gospel and creation and for the devil.
After the revolts had been put down, Luther reprimanded the princes for their excessive violence and asked them to show mercy.
Result of Peasants’ War In Criticism of Reformation
Princes like Duke George of Saxony held Luther responsible
Peasants’ War would come up in Catholic critique of Luther
Some who had been allies now distanced themselves (eg. Count of Hanau-Lichtenberg)

Many lost their zeal in following Luther;
Many thought it would lift their living conditions
Luther’s Change After Peasants’ Revolt
Saw that it was not enough to ‘let the Word run its course’
Structure was necessary
Time of visitations and church orders had arrived
Time to establish Protestant churches in towns.
RESULT OF P.W.
Princes were winners – their positions as sovereigns were strengthened
Peasants no longer a factor in politics, but still played social role in some territories
Reasons for New Structures after the PW
1. To have a uniform theological training of clergy of one territory
2. To organize the election and salaries of pastors
3. To introduce uniform worship
4. To reorganize schools and religious education
5. To reorganize municipalities which had been affected by the so-called ‘Sickingen conflict’ (provoked by Franz von Sickingen who had plundered the Kaiserslautern) and the Peasants War
6. To administrate the possessions of the dissolved monasteries
7. To clarify the question as to whether or not the Lutheran movement, which was illegal in the Empire, was to be tolerated in the individual territories
8. To reorganize legislation by supplanting canon law.
Since 1525 the demands by Luther (and others) were mirrored by those princes who had turned Protestant (since the PW showed danger of uncontrolled theology and rebellion)
Why were visitations arranged?
Diet of Speyer (1526) gave individual sovereigns certain leeway in dealing with religion which could be used to establish new structures
Outline visitations?
• Organized by secular authorities along lines of traditional visitations by Bishop
• Here, the ruler of territory or town council appointed committee of theologians and lawyers
o First areas to have visitations:
• Thuringia (since summer 1524)
• Prussia (since 1525)
• Electorate of Saxony (1526-30)
• Papism and blameless lives - ‘Visitors’ made sure pastors have not turned away from ‘papism’ and made sure no errors were taught, blameless lives were lived,
• Fixed income - Visitors tried to guarantee the income of pastors through benefices or taxes of believers.
Basic Documents of Visitations
Melanchthon – Instructions for the Visitors of Parish Pastors in Electoral Saxony (1528)
Luther – Catechisms (1529)
Edict of Worms reaction of secular authorities
Varied widely
Fully implemented in Albertine Soxony
Some southern German cities (but with less enthusiasm)
Diet reactions to Edict of Worms
Diets of Nuremberg (1522, 1523, 1524) – not much to curb spread of evangelicalism
2nd diet stated that preachers had to proclaim Gospel ‘as accepted by the Christian church’
3rd diet decided the Edict of Worms should be implemented as widely as possible
Princes who sympathized with evangelical movement
Fredrick the Wise
Frerick’s brother, John the Steadfast
Albert, Grand Master of Teutonic Knights – convert to Lutheranism – then Duchy of Prussia (first state to adopt Prot. as official state religion)
Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse
Ernest I, Duke Brinswick-Lüneburg
Regensburg Alliance define and 1st meeting
June 1524, Catholic loyal princes – reaction to protestant princes’ alliance
Who was the leading voice next to Melanchthon in Wittenberg after 1521 when Luther was away?
Andreas Karlstadt
First German Mass Celebrated
1521, lead by Andreas Karlstadt
Other towns in Electoral Saxony followed his example
Karlstadt’s model for Wittenberg
Under Karlstadt’s influence, Order of the Town of Wittenberg published – pescribed removal of images and celebration of mass according to Karlstadt’s model.
Public care financed by ecclesial stipends. (care of poor moved from monasteries to communities).
Luther did not disagree with Karlstadt but thought it was too fast
Was Wittenberg the fastest in liturgical changes
In other places the liturgical changes were much more quickly introduced (Basel, Pforzheim, Reutlingen, Worms, Nuremberg, Strasbourg, etc)
Original use of term ‘Reformatio’ as concept of value
• Still prevalent in the 16th C., especially among humanist circles, which sought to improve the morality of the curia and clergy.
• In the secular usage (administration and university), Reformatio signifies change in sense of renewal.
• Luther’s contemporaries already applied this term to his work and impact.
• Reformatio was occasionally used in eschatological by Luther and his combatants.
‘Reformation’ usage after 1570
‘Reformation’ came to be used in institutional sense among Calvinists (calling themselves the ‘Reformed Church’)
‘Reformation’ as name for specific period of history
Since 18th C. “Reformation” has been used as name for period from 1517-1555.
Leopold von Ranke and ‘Reformation’
Established by work of Leopold von Ranke (secular!) (1795-1886) in ‘German History in the Age of the Reformation’ --
Ranke calls the period after 1555 the counter-reformation, he calls the period 1517-1648 (end of 30years War and Peace of Westphalia) the reformation and the counter reformation.
Catholic name for Counter Reformation
Recent Catholic historiography, the name ‘counter-Reformation’ has been supplanted by term ‘Catholic Reform’ (esp. in German Literature)
Protestant Perspective on years 1555-1648
Often called the Age of (Old/early) Protestant Orthodoxy, or Age of Confessionalism.
Enlightenment (18th C) view of Reformation
Seen as end of supposedly ‘sinister’ Middle Ages
Beginning of the modern era as an era of freedom
Reinforced by German Idealism and liberalism (freedom from institutional constraints)
Thus in 19th and 20th Centuries, still seen as dawn of age of individual responsibility.
Toeltsch’s ‘turning point’ view of Reformation
Lutheran Reformation anchored in medieval tradition
Attributed modern approaches only to humanists and nonconformists
Considered the Enlightenment of 18th C to be true beginning of modernity
Question: Does the Reformation represent a new era at all?
Various intertwined aspects of Reformation
Religious, ecclesial, theological, social, cultural, economic, constitutional, and domestic and foreign policy changes.
What we call the ‘Reformation’ as set of complex subproblems
• The continuity with antecedents or the determination by preconditions
• Luther as merely catalyst OR as main designer of the Reformation
• Historical significance or varieties of Reformation in Wittenberg, Zurich, and Strasbourg AND the so-called ‘radical Reformation’ of the Anabaptists and Spiritualists.
• Development of grassroots renewal (popular movement, communal reformation) to a regulated institution imposed from above (reformation of the princes)
• Relationship of early forms of Reformation to later forms (after 1555), period of the ‘late’ Reformation or ‘confessionalism’
• Relationship between Catholic Reformation and Protestant Reformation
Example of ‘no uniform understanding of Reformation’
Controversies between Church and social historians
Importance of religion and theology in this period
Common understanding (between Social Hx and Church)
‘Reformation’ not only covers the work of Luther, Zwingly, and Calvin, etc. but also includes the change in social conditions triggered by the religious renewal or change.

An open approach to understanding the Reformation is also theologically well grounded as it assumes that our human attempts at interpretation and explanation do not suffice to explain......an open approach gives glory to God as the guide of history.
Define Reformation (Hauschild)
‘Reformation is the definition detachment of significant Christian groups from the church of the pope underpinned by a new theology, in which the traditional system of imparting salvation and religious hierarchy is replaced by new forms of the church.’
Characteristics of Hauschild’s Definition of Reformation
• Renewed appeal to the Gospel changed individual piety and created new religious mentality
• New religious mentality resulted in structural changes within the church
o Solo Christo, Sola fide, Sola gratio and form of Soloa Scriptura (instead of magisterium)
Beginnings of the Reformation (date)
Usually dated 1517-1525
Marks of Beginning of Reformation
Spread of evangelical sermons and church services
A plurality of positions
Implementation of Reformation (dates)
1525 until 1555 (peace of Augsburg) or 1648 (Peace of Westphalia)
Marks of the implementation of Reformation
• Church order takes shape based on evangelical doctrines
• Clarification of theological options leads to implementation of structural boundaries
o Also increased confessional rigidity
o Long disputes between the Emperor and regional authorities, between Empire and territories (due to Germany’s peculiar boundaries)
Unity of Reformation
Unified because:
Abandonment of traditional ecclesial system is everywhere provoke by Luther’s teachings
Anti-catholic aspect (even still) shared by all protestant groups
Political Situation in Europe in c 1519
W. Europe: dominated by strong national monarchies of Spain, France and England
N. Europe: Personal union (since 1397) of Northern Kingdoms (Denmark, Norway, and Sweeden)
E. Europe: Leading powers = Muscovite Dynasty – not yet troubling the W. World
Jagiellonian Dynasty (Poland-Lithuania) – lineage of this dynasty ruling both Bohemia and Hungary since 1490
Central Europe: Strong nation states had arisen all around C. Europe and only Germany and Italy were left fragmented and powerless
Causes of the Reformation
- The decline of the Catholic Church during the 14th and 15th Centuries
- This general decline strengthened the call for a restructuring of the church at the beginning of 16th C.
- Growing social, cultural and political participation of the laity (esp. bourgeoisie in prosperous German cities) led to demands for greater religious participation (such as mysticism)
- Discovery of America – world became bigger and people’s eyes opened to other options
- universality of Christianity increasingly called into question
- Political and economic conditions called for reorganization of the church
o Church loosing authority due to rise of independent states (e.g. Germany’s Landeskirchen
o Shift from barter system to a money-based economy (changed living conditions in society and church urgently needed to adapt)
Contributing Factors to decline of Catholic Church in 14th and 15th C.
Overthrow of papal world denomination and papacy’s dependence on France
The Great (papal) Schism (1378-1415) resulting in duality of popes (devastating to trust in papcy)
The dissolution of Scholasticism through nominalism led to criticism of traditional religion and society (esp nominalism of William of Ockham (c. 1288-1348) and Gabriel Biel (d. 1495)
Professors from University of Paris became more radical and modern in their views of chuch politics in the era of the reform councils
University claimed hegemony over the authority of church (U. of Paris claimed it was called by God to judge ecclesiastical affairs) – led to Luther’s views on role of ‘doctor of theology.’
Results of reform councils remained inconclusive
Development of German Mysticism (1300’s - Eckhart, Tauler, Suso, etc)
Main reason why Reformation broke from Catholic church but remained Christian
Basically, people of that period were strictly religious. This living devotion was the main cause........a strong and unique piety developed vis-à-vis the older forms of Christianity.
Predecessors to the Reformation
- Arnold of Brescia (d. 1155)
- The Waldensians (since late 12th C) – preaching penance and apostolic poverty
- Wyclif and Lollards in England
- Hus and Hussites in Bohemia
- Reform councils (of Constance [1414-1418] and Basel/Ferrara-Florance [1431-49])
- The ‘One Hundred Grievances of the German Nation’ (first issued 1456) – protested again financial exhaustion of Germany by papacy; would be reformulated again and again until Reformation.
Luther’s birthplace
Eisleben, son of Hans and Margarete Luder, 8 siblings
Luther’s studies
1497-98 – Cathedral school in Magdeburg and lived with ‘Brethren of the Common Life’
(devotio moderna)

1501-1505 – Liberal arts at Erfurt – acquainted here with Nominalism (Gabriel Biel) –
1502 – BA
1505 – MA
The studied law
Thunderstorm Event
July 2nd 1505 in Stotternheim
Entered Hermits of St Augustine in Erfurt, July 17th 1505
Nominalism influence as monk
Read Gabriel Biel’s Explanation of the Order of the Mass - stressed that Mass had to be duly performed in which case the priest would encounter the presence of God or Christ during the Mass. – Christ as judge, new source of fear and temptations
Luther as teacher
1507 - Lecturer in Philosophy at monastery – began to study theology in Erfurt
1508-09 – Lecturer of Phil at Uni. Of Wittenberg, while studying theology
1509 – promotion to biblical Bachelor
Studying mysticism, and in works of Bernard or Clairvaux found Christ-centered mysticism.
Johann von Staupitz
Vicar general (d. 1524)
Proposed unification of Observant branch of Augustinian order with other branches.
Luther first opposed this with his Erfurt Monastery, but later stopped resistance against Staupitz.
Staupitz transferred lither to Wittenberg in Autumn 1511.
Luther’s Severe Crisis
Began Autumn 1511
In Wittenberg after being transferred there by Staupitz.
Fear of Christ as judge and fear of final judgment
Man before God is unable to fulfill demands
Nominalist theology thought God does not refuse man’s grace as long as he does everything in his power.....but Luther continued to doubt

Staupitz helped Luther to not focus on judgment, but look on Christ – Christ’s suffering as sign of God’s mercy to sinner
Overcame distress by study of Scripture (esp. Romans) and writings of Augustine
Catholic Priest hiding during visitations
In "priest holes" under their staircases or such places
Summepiscopate
The idea that the Protestant sovereign is the supreme bishop (summus episcopus) of the church of his realm – (due to the Elector of Saxony [first] banishing those from his realm who did not obey his instructions in the visitations)
Summepiscopate lasted how long in Germany?
until 1919, Weimar constitution
Luther vs Melanchthon in regards to power of rulers over church matters
Luther = much more hesitant
Luther thought only in special circumstances should prince intervene in church matters (as 'emergency bishop')
Luther would rather have type of 'bishop' to guard the church's rights against state

Melanchthon thought the prince should watch over both offices, even worship and doctrine and appointing pastors
'Could the emergence of national churches been avoided?' discussion
1. establishment of evangelical churches from below obstructed by defeat in PW.
2. the non-participation of bishops that remained true to traditional church prevented reform within the episcopal framework (as in Scandinavia)

Thus, in Germany, churches established along territorial lines
Luther communicated to Erasmus through....
Georg Spalatin (1516), chaplain to Fredrick the Wise)

Communicated points of disagreement (eg, Romans)
When did Luther begin to see that he did not have such an ally in the humanists?
Late 1516

Wrote to Johann Lang on this in Jan 1517.
Erasmus' letter to Albert of Mainz
Oct. 1519, to plead for fair treatment of Luther

He communicated same ideas to Elector of Saxony after publication of 'Exsurge Domine" (1520)
Why did Erasmus say he did not want to support Luther when he asked?
He felt 'lumped together' too closely; wanted to concentrate on scholarship
Erasmus' gerneral view of Luther
That he went too far and wanted everything at once
Attacked those from behind who wanted reform of church and theology but not a revolution.
Eransmus' response to Edict of Worms
"the burning of his books will perhaps banish Luther from our libraries, whether he can be plucked out of men's hearts I am not so sure"
Ulrich von Hutten and Erasmus.......over support of Luther
Hutten attacked Erasmus for his unclear position (1523 - summer)

Erasmus responded (his 'Apology against Hutte') ....and withdrew to position of neutraility. (sept 1523)
Luther found Erasmus lacking especially.....
in his notions of grace
Erasmus and Luther "theology" titles
Erasmus - Theology of Freedom
Luther - theology of the cross (over theology of glory)

Luther criticized Erasmus for having a theology of glory......but Erasmus had a theology of freedom (man's work CAN BE GOOD because of God's grace which makes these works possible)
Erasmus trusted in the inner reform of the church
Luther on will/freedom of man.....
the human will is a beast with 2 riders (God or Satan) who directs it

We cannot decide who the rider is
Erasmus' worry of Luther's view of the human will
that it would lead to moral laxity
Erasmus on man and aiding in salvation
Man CAN make a contribution toward his salvation

Election and the freedom to accept are two inseparable terms

Man's truly free will needs God's grace still
Bondage of the Will
Luther's reply to Erasmus' views on human will.

Calls Erasmus an Epicurean, hypocrite, atheist and sophist.

Salvation wholly dependent on God
Erasmus' response to "Bondage of the Will"
Hyperaspistes, Part II

Luther no longer responded
Why was agreement between Erasmus and Luther impossible?
Luther no longer accepted church as arbiter in matters of truth -- needed firm anchor of the Bible.

Erasmus did not accept this exclusive norm.
Date of Diet of Speyer (1st)
June 1526
The diet's ambiguous edict resulted in a temporary suspension of the Edict of Worms and aided the expansion of Protestantism.
Held only in the Emperor's name
The invading Turks drew the Catholics/Empire's attention away.

These results were repudiated in the Diet of Speyer of 1529.
Date of 2nd Diet of Speyer
April 1529
Luther's doctrine of Lord's Supper
The word of God constitute the Lord's Supper
God justifies man by means of the word because it creates faith.

From 1518-1523, Luther gradually abandoned the catholic doctrine of teh sacraments....emphasizing sacrament as 'gift'.....no longer points to Christ but actually brings Christ
Luther's basis for his argument against catholic doctrine of transubstantiation
criticised as an Aristotelian "pseudo-philosophy"
Defined by his understanding of the word of God....emphasizing the WORDS OF INSTITUTION ['this is my body'] (which clearly show the invisible presence of the flesh and blood of JC in the elements)
Date of Beginning of controversy with Zwingly and Swiss
1526
Luther's 'doctrine of ubiquity'
ON VIEW OF PRESENCE IN LORD'S SUPPER

(Drawing on ideas of Ockham and Biel)

Distinguished 3 modes of presence
1. Local presence
2. Presence in place without constraint (like soul in body)
3. Presence 'replative' - presence also outside an object - filling multiple places at one - typical of God alone

During controversy with Swiss, he switched from 'personal presence' of Christ in elements to 'REAL PRESENCE'
Diet of Augsburg date
1530
Luther's final doctrine of Lord's Supper after Diet of Augsburg
Lord's Supper as attaining a certainty of faith during temptation.

It is not the faith of the participants that qualifies the supper, but the proclamation of the word of God.

The presence of Christ in the elements is communicated to the recipients in a hidden manner, not by reason.
Zwingli's view of Lord's Supper
rejection of sacrificial character of Mass

Rejects Tran- and con-substantiation
Draws on Plato of duality of material and spiritual - but the material can be used AS A SIGN of spiritual actions.

Dutch platonist (Gansfort) agreed with Zwingli
Zwingli's primary concern in his view of Lord's Supper
Soteriological

It is a meal of COMMEMORATION.
Did not want the real event of Christ's death to be minimized, but wanted it to be remembered.

The Lord's Supper brings about a 'transformation' of the BELIEVERS in as the body of Christ
Zwingli's concern with the second coming of Christ to the Lord's Supper and the presence of Christ
In Zwingli's view, the bodily character of the coming kingdom of God is only guaranteed by Christ's human nature sitting on the right hand of the Father.
Marburg Colloquy (definition and date)
Attempt at the behest of Philip of Hesse to settle controversy between Lutheran and Reformed theologians.

Subject = real presence in Eucharistic elements

Sept 30 - Oct 4, 1529.
Philip of Hesse's reasons for wanting to settle Lutheran/Reformed dispute at Marburg
Political reasons....unify the Protestants.....in light of the immanent Diet of Augsburg.

Melanchthon was interested in preserving the toleration of the Lutheran Church by the Empire (however, this toleration from the Diet of Speyer, 1529, did not include sacramentarians which included the Swiss)
Suggestion for agreement on real pressence at Marburg Colloquy
the substantial and essential presence

But Zwingli denied on theological grounds
Results of Marburg Colloquy
15 Marburg Articles (drafted by Luther), Oct 4, 1529.

Agreement on 14 doctrinal issues:

1. Trinity and Creed of Nicaea-constantinople
2. Christology (incarnation and virgin birth)
3. Passion, death, resurrection, ascension (reference to Apostles Creed)
4. original sin
5. redemption thru faith
6. faith as God's gift w/o human cooperation
7. faith as only basis of righteousness
8. H. Spirit only operates thru Word
9.Baptism as sacrament
10. On good works
11. Penance only voluntary
12. Authorities and secular laws are justified (against some papists and anabaptists)
13. Ecclesial tradition - (under Word, peace, celibacy abolished, etc)
14. Acceptance of infant baptism

15. Lord's Supper
15th Marburg Article on Lord's Supper - 5 issues of agreement
communion under both kinds
Mass is not a good work
Lord's supper is a sacrament of the true body and blood of Jesus Christ
Spiritual reception of body and blood necessary
Sacrament instituted by God so that weak consciousness might be moved to faith in Holy Spirit
Luther and Zwingli's difference over 15th Marburg Article
Luther = presence is SUBSTANTIAL

Zwingli = presence is SPIRITUAL
No eucharistic fellowship between Lutherans and Reformed until when?
Leuenberg Agreement, 1973
Schwabach Articles
Summer 1529 (before Diet of Augsburg - 1530)

At behest of Margrave George of Brandenburg-Ansbach

Joint confession of Ansbach and Wittenberg theologians in order to strengthen alliances between Lutheran princes against Emperor Charles V
Authors of Schwabach Articles
Authors = Melanchthon and Luther
Who accepted the Schwabach Articles and what did it lead to?
Saxony and Brandenburg-Ansbach accepted it and......

this formed the basis for the Marburg Articles/
Events leading up to Diet of Ausburg in Summer of 1529?
Charles V ended wars with Pope Clement VII and with France in Peace Treaties of Barcelona and Cambrai (however still had Turkish threat from East)
Agenda of calling Diet of Ausburg
Repulsion of Turkish threat
and
settlement of discord in hold faith (restoring union of all those under the church)
Torgau Articles
Drawn up by Melanchthon for the Diet of Augsburg (LOST)

(doctrinal issues for the diet were based on the Schwabach Articles)
'Apology' for Saxony by Melanchthon
Drawn up for the Diet of Augsberg

Luther (who did not attend since he was banned), said he totally agreed with Melanchthon's draft.
Base documents for the Augsberg Confession ('confession Augustana)
Since disagreement, Melanchthon had to revise his document.

Based (now) on Schwabach, Marburg and Torgau Articles (as well as others)
Was the Augsburg Confession adopted by the Protestant states?
Yes, by most.

Strasbourg, Constance, Lundau, and Memmingen submitted a 'Confession of the Four Cities' drafted by Bucer and Capio for their states.

Zwingli (not present) made his ownown
The copies of the Augsburg Confession
German and Latin copies.

Have been seen side-by-side and NEITHER is a copy of the other

Caused later inner-Protestant controversies
Contents of Augsburg Confession
28 Articles (in 2 parts)

Interesting ones:

4. Justification (through faith)
Melenchthon deleted words 'alone' - which would seem problematic to catholics
Only INDIRECTLY rejects that justification cannot be obtained thru works (Mel. criticized for this)

6. Of new obedience (melanchthon wants to stress that faith will produce works)

10. Lord's Supper (differences in Latin and German texts)

17. Millenarian expectations are condemned

18. that 'protestants are falsely accused of forbidding good works' - 'sola fide' explained

22. The laity are to be given both kinds of the Lord's Supper
Augsburg Confession on Lord's Supper - Differences in Latin and German versions
Latin - 'the body and blood are TRULY PRESENT'

German - 'the body and blood are TRULY PRESENT.....under the FORM of bread and wine'
Reactions to Melanchthon's Augsburg Confession
Justus Jonas = too soft ('the devil still lives') on topics of purgatory, adoration of saints, and the anti-christ [the pope]......and the priesthood of all believers was not mentioned.

Luther - said not to concede any more! But overall saw it in a positive light.
The Catholic reaction to the Augsburg confession
more than 20 Catholic theologians commissioned to draft a rejection of the Lutheran confession.

Stages:
1. Reply to theological individual articles.
2. Rejection as being polemical
3. The last draft was said to be the doctrine of Early Church
Drafted 1530; Not published until 1559
Lutheran response to the Catholic Response to the Augsburg confession
Delayed, some confusion.

The Apology was 'an intermediate status between a private treatise by Melachthon and an official commentary of the Augsburg Confession.
Melanchthon was solely responsible.
End of the Diet of Augsburg
Without agreement

The Elector of Saxony left on Sept 23 since no more opportunity to reach agreement.

In practice, the diet aimed at religious and legal situation before 1521.
Later uses of the Augsburg Confession
Diet planned as an apology of the Electoral Saxony, but turned into a confession of many Protestant estates and thus became a document of state.

Soon it was used as a DOCTRINAL NORM within Protestantism
Re-edition of Augsburg Confession
Melanchthon released his 'Altered Augsburg Confession' in 1540.

This was an official re-edition.
Due to changes in Protestantism and efforts of organizing religious colloquies with catholics.

It was also meant as a revision of the confessional basis of the Schmalkaldic Leage (which he had made a draft for them in 1537)
Book of Concord - date
1580

Doctrinal Standard of Lutheran Church
Later reaction to Re-edition of Augsburg Confession
Melanchthon's theology became the object of controversies in the wake of the 'Interim' (1548) with the re-edition increasingly criticized.....therefore late 1500's, the Lutherans would generally only accepted the first edition of the Augsburg Confession
Example of Reformation as Urban Event in Switzerland
Evangelical movement thru work of preachers:
Basel: since 1518
Berne: since 1520
Strasbourg: since 1521

Most influential theologians =
3 Swiss Cities Political and population status
Strasbourg 22,000
Basel 10,000
Berne c 5,000

All 3 were city republics
Ruling councils were Increasingly controlled by economic oligarchy of merchants
Most influential theologians in the main cities of Switzerland (Basel and Strasbourg)?
Oecolampadius and Bucer
Oecolampadius
AKA (Johannes Huschin)

Born: Weinsberg (1482)
Studied: theology at Heidelberg
(student of Humanist Jakob Wimpeling)
MA Graduate: 1503

Then Studies law in Bologna
Was a preacher (1510)

1513 - met Melanchthon in Tübigen
Oecolampadius and Erasmus
Became ed. asst. and Hebrew consultant to Erasmus' 1st ed of Greek NT (1515/1516)
Where does Oecolampadius finally reside?
Resided in Basel (1522)
Public lectures at university
Translated Church Fathers

Took over Evangelical Movement in Basel
Close friend of Zwingli
Reformed Church Order Implemented (date and describe)
1529

After long delays and revolts (culminating in iconoclastic riots)......the city council finally implemented the Reformation (Reformed Church Order)
Oecolampadius and office of 'Presbyter'
Oecolampadius created this office in 1530 in order to implement the controversial issue of church discipline.

Died in 1531
Oecolampadius Death.
1531 (end of)
Oecolampadius' influence
1. Theologian and widely published scholar (commentaries, systematic writings) widely read by Protestant theologians in 16th C.

2. Pastor and preacher:
Reformation in Basel
Admission of protestant refugees
And prestige of the University

3. His 'Memorandum concerning the reorganization of the Church" (esp. concerning church discipline) influenced later Reformeds
Key Figure for Reformation in Strasbourg
Martin Bucer

(Strasbourg, Cologne, England)
Martin Bucer
Born: 1491
Holy Orders: 1515/1516
Studied: Heidelberg (1517)

Met Luther at Heidelberg Disputation (1518) - won as adherent

1522/23 - Fled to Strausbourg during war of Franz con Sickingen against Trier.
Reformation in Strasbourg -- date
1524
What did Bucer help draft at Augsburg?
the Confession of the 4 Cities
(with Capito) - 1530
Intermediary between Swiss Reformation and German Reformation?
Martin Bucer
Wittenberg Concord (date)
1536

Between Reformed and Lutherans

defined the doctrine of the Real Presence of Christ's body and blood in the Eucharist as the Sacramental Union and maintained the real eating of the body and blood of Christ by "unworthy communicants"
Deaths in Bucer's life
1541 - wife and 5 of his children die in plague
Bucer and Cologne
helped in failed attempt at reformation in Cologne (1542-1547)
Why did Bucer flee to England (1549)
For signing the Interim in Augsburg (under pressure)....deposed in Strasbourg
Death of Martin Bucer
Died in Cambridge (become professor there in his exile)
Died 1551

Posthumous charge of heresy under Queen Marry (1556) and coffin burned in market square.
Bucer compared to Oecolampadius
Bucer quickly forgotten after death....but more influential than Oecolampadius.

In Strasbourg since 1523:
Leader in Evangelical Movement
Speaker against secular powers, Catholic Church, and Anabaptists

Influence spread in whole of Europe (particularly Hesse, Switzerland, England, and S. germany)
Bucer's work for unity
Within Protestantism: Wittenberg Concord (1536)
(between Lutheran and Reformed - defined the doctrine of the Real Presence of Christ's body and blood in the Eucharist as the Sacramental Union and maintained the real eating of the body and blood of Christ by "unworthy communicants")

Between Catholics and Protestants: religious colloquies of 1540-41
Bucer's emphases in theology
1. stricter church discipline independent of secular authorities
2. Fought for improvement of personal lives of every Christian [thru whatever means necessary, even force]
3. Emphasized Holy Spirit (more than Luther)
4. Emphasized community
5. Emphasized IMPROVEMENT of Christian and the effect of Christian message on the believer (where Luther emphasized justification before God)
The beginning of the further stages of the Reformation in the 3 cities
1523.....and many changes in 1524
Alterations happening in 3 (Swiss) cities in 1524
In all 3 cities many monks and nuns were leaving monasteries, even so many that some monasteries were forced to close.
Many priests were getting married (esp in Basel)
Changes in Cult in 1524 in Strasbourg
German baptism introduced
Lord's Supper administered in both kinds
Mass in German
A table replaced the altar
Sign of cross abandoned
Council decree in 1525 for Strasbourg, Basel, and Berne
edicts obligating the preachers to only use the Bible as base for sermons
Swiss Reformation began in.....
Zurich (under Zwingli)
and later Basel
How did the evangelical-turn turn radical in Strasbourg?
Against resistance of both clergy and authorities.
Iconoclasm.
Exacerbated during the Peasants' War (until it was calmed down in the Anabaptist movement)
Calm in the momentum of the Evangelical movement in Basel and Strasbourg caused by.....
Calm in 1526

The Baden Disputation

(to try to keep spread of Protestantism in Switzerland.....John Eck lead the catholic side)
The peak of the dissenters (radical reformation, Karlstadt, Müntzer, ect)
1520-1530
What are other names for the Anabaptist movement?
it was not coherent, therefore named also "radical Reformation" or "nonconformism" or "dissenters"
What was the single common denominator of the Radical Reformation?
opposition to the reformation being led by theologians and secular authorities (otherwise, there were many opinions).....spiritualist, apocalytics, etc..

Sprang up in many places at once (yet still contact between some leaders)
Historic influence of Radical Reformers
For many it was medieval traditions.

Many (esp. Münster) was influenced by German Idealism
Andreas von Karlstadt
Born: 1486

1510: Professor at Uni Wittenberg

Studued: Augustine and mystics (esp TRAULER)

Came to support Luther (focused on Augustine's theology of grace)
At Luther's return from Wartburg to Wittenberg (1522), what was the main disagreement between Karlstadt and Luther?
The spread of the reform.

Luther wanted to persuade through preaching.
Karlstadt wanted to change things (eg. abolish the Mass) first.
Karlstadt's main theology
When he left Wittenberg, went to Orlamünde and became vicar and rector (1523/1524)

Rejected infant baptism
Symbolic interpretation of words of Institution of Lord's Supper
Devalued external word (even the Bible) (emphasized direct experience of HOLY SPIRIT)

Spiritual marriage of the soul and God
Other important events of Karlstadt
Expelled from Saxony 1524
Tried to mediate between parties in Peasants' War
Then went to Zurich and then Basel (professor) where he died.
Thomas Münster
Studied at Wittenberg with Luther (1517-1518)

Since 1520, his theology increasingly showed spiritualist andf apocalyptic elements
Mysticism
Late Middle Ages (1300's)
Meister Eckhart
John Trauler
Others

Individual devotion without becoming monks
Gallicanism
church system within the national system
Roman power reduced; church seen as sort of parliament

Seen esp. in French church system

Similar to Nominalism
Luther becomes Doctor of Theology
1512

Against his will
Succeeded Staupitz
The professorship would remain Luther's professional basis throughout his life.
Luther's reading of scriptural passages relating to self-humiliation:
2 views
1. monastic piety aiming at mortification could help in the acquisition of grace

2. (more probable) as an effect of God's Word..........not condition of justification, but expression of faith
Luther as critic
1516
began to criticize prevailing scholasticism and mysticism
Luther against the scholastics
1517 directed against the 'pig theologians' (Duns Scot, Ockham, and esp. Gabriel Biel).....hence against Nominalists

According to Luther, the scholastics taught man's will could be enlightened and turn away from evil by itself to do good

Man is given perpetual grace from God which frees man even from dependence on God

Also in 1517 debate....argued against ARISTOTLE

Luther: it is all a work of God
God justifies man in this life

Simultaneously just and a sinner
Luther critique against plenary indulgences
Lent, 1517
of Pope Leo X
Luther's 'concupiscence
took from Augustine

prisoner of evil desires
Luther's main question
THE BASIS OF MAN'S RIGHTEOUSNESS

From Christ
Participated in through faith (which is also from Christ)
Tower Experience
From 'Table Talks'

New knowledge of justice of God
Rom 1:17 - 'justice of God is revealed in IT (the gospel)..'
EVEN THROUGH THE GOSPEL, but it is a passive justice
He originally understood justice in a philosophical way

After: 'I exalted the sweetest word of mine: the justice of God."
The phrase for me was now 'the gate of paradise'


Exact date of Luther's new understanding of the Gospel is not known: either 1514/15 or Spring 1518
Indulgences History
since 11th C., indulgences were a remission of a temporal penalty before God granted by the church for sins that had already been confessed and had therefore been forgiven.

Eventually extended to purgatory
Increased by end of Middle Ages (with increasing fear of final judgment) to pay church expenses
New indulgence in 1506
plenary indulgence which freed sinner from ALL temporal penalties to help rebuild St Peter's Basilica
New indulgence in 1515
Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz served as indulgence commissary would receive half of the income to pay his loans (had permission to combine several diocese into his possession)
John Tetzel preached the indulgence.
Luther's first actions against indulgences
As pastor in Wittenberg
Letter to Archbishop (Oct 31, 1517)
Indulgences could only save from temporal punishment the church had imposed
Asking to preach in another manor
Date of 95 Theses
Oct 31, 1517

Letter to Archbishop added to Theses
Reason luther had to post the 95 thesis?
he wanted to discuss them at the University
Heidelberg Disputation
April 26, 1518

Defending the theses composed by Luther
Contrasts his:
Theology of Glory (find god in creation thru morality)
Theology of Cross (thru suffering of Chrsit)

Won him new adherents in Bucer and Brenz
When was Luther summoned to Rome?
August 1518

Did not trust courts in Rome.....with help of Fredrick the Wise, he was examined in Germany
Delay in prosecution of Luther due to?
Upcoming of election of new emperor in 1519
Bull of excommunication date
6 June, 1520

This remained the church's only doctrinal statement on Luther until the council of Ttrent
To Christian Nobility of German Nation .....Date
Aug 1520
Babylonian Captivity of Chruch.....Date
October 1520
Luther defended himself against the bull with......
Luther received the bull 4 months later.....

Defended himself with "On the Freedom of the Christian"
Luther first calls pope heretic
November 1520
Luther burns the papal bull
December 1520
3 primary works of Luther
1. To the Christian Nobility of a German Nation
2. Babylonian Captivity of the Church
3. On the Freedom of the Christian/Letter to Pope
Letter to Christian Nobility
Socio-political reforms
Addresses emperor and Christian nobility

3 walls need to be torn down:
1. notion of 'spiritual power over secular'
2. pope's monopoly on scriptures
3. pop's right to summon council

If Pope prevents reform, the church should turn to secular powers (emergency bishops)

Here luther also develops his concept of 'priesthood of all believers'
Babylonian Captivity of the Church
About sacraments held in captivity

1. Rejects transubstantiation
2. rejects sacraments as symbols
3. Mass as a good work

FAITH ALONE

Baptism - lasting and does not require further penance.
Pennance
Luther on 'true sacraments
1. Initiated by Christ
2. Have sign attached to them given by Christ

Only 2 sacraments = eucharist and baptism
Christian Freedom/Letter to Pope
Main thesis: christian is free, subject to none
Christian is most dutiful servant, subject to all.

Justification as basis of Christian ethic: free from all authorities......servant of neighbor
Edict of Woms (date)
1521
Luther excommunicated by pope, but Elector of Saxony made possible for Luther to be seen at Diet of Worms
Diet of Worms
1521

Luther refuses to recant in front of Emperor (charles V)

(perhaps miscommunication since emperor spoke only a little latin)
Luther saved from capture after diet of Worms
through fake kidnapping
Luther's translation of NT
1522
Luther returns to Wittenberg after hiding
1523
Luther's work on two kingdoms (date at contents)
March 1523
"Temporal Authority: to what extent they should obeyed"

the christian belongs to both realms

Confusing the 2 kingdoms can only be prevented by preaching of gospel
Beginning of controversy with Andreas Karlstadt
Date and content
1524
over images (karlstadt against) and over Eucharist as only 'commemoration service'
Münster's first relation to Luther
was student of Luther's
Controversy with Zwingli concerning Lord's Supper (date)
1525-29
Marburg Colloque (date and content)
1529
About Lord's Supper
Luther married when and during whta?
June 1525, during PW
Beginning of Luther's illness
1527
Luther's Message "Man Before God"
each person is in direct relationship before God and his salvation is dependent on this relationship

Self justification is the most serious expression of disbelief

Distinction between law and gospel (word of god reaches man in these 2 forms, condemnation and mercy)
Luther rejects veneration of saints (date)
1522.....stressing union with Christ alone
Luther's view of history
continual struggle between God and Satan
Luther sees the Pope as antichrist (date)
1520 because he drew up new articles in opposition to the scriptures
Endtimes (Luther)
Luther reject Millenarianism

Expectation for return of christ became more urgent after 1530
Philipp Melanchthon
University of Heidelberg, Tübigen

Studied humanism with Oecolampadius (also astronomy and Aristotle)
Melanchthon works
EXTENSIVE

Grammars, textbooks,
Theological
Commentaries
Physics, history, geography
Poems'
etc
Melanchthon Theology
Much Like Luther

Trinitarian, Free Will, 3 laws

Aims at creating trinitarian theology (church like grammar of divine word, not inventing new dogma)

FREE WILL to choose evil (predestination only to general election)

3 modes of LAW:
Civil use
Theological use
Law of the justified sinner (eternal will of God)
Melanchthon on justification
imputative over effective
Melanchthon on the church
is the VISIBLE congregation of those called (rejected idea of invisible church)
Melanchthon sacraments
baptism, Eucharist and absolution

sees ordination as equal to sacrament
Melanchthon on presence in elements of Lord's Supper
real presence (not in the bread but 'with the bread')
Rejected Luther's real presence (too close to catholic)
Melanchthon influence
textbooks
His theological "Loci" was a model for later Lutheran and Reformed theologians
Influenced ideas of natural law and reason and thus had impact on Enlightenment.
Johannes Bugenhagen
Studied at Wittenberg (1521)
Town pastor at Wittenberg (1523)

Friend of Luther

Heled to spread Reformation to Scanidavian regions (north)

Major role in translating bible into LOW GERMAN
Nicolaus von Amsdorff
University of Wittenberg lecturer (1511)

One of Luther's closest associates

Rejected any works (his 'basic experience')

PIONEER OF LUTHERAN ORTHODOXY
Justus Jonas
Studied law at Wittenberg (1511-15) where he came into contact with humanist circles.

Prof of theology in Wittenberg (1521)

ASSISTED IN REFORMATION in the Duchy of Saxony by drafting its church order