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97 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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How should an unfamiliar bird species be approached?
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determine:
-what sense it uses to perceive it's environment -what anatomical features it has to defend itself |
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Why do birds become ill so quickly?
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-birds are endothermic with high metabolic rates and body temperature
-few body fat stores -egg laying, moulting and rapid growth require a large amount of energy -ill birs catabolize muscle mass quickly |
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What is critical to provide in the ill bird?
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nutritional support (oxygen therapy can be helpful too)
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How do birds regulate their body temperature?
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-raising/lowering feathers
-increasing metabolic rate -seeking shade/sun -evaporation -blood shunting |
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How can maintenance of body temperature be assisted in the ill bird?
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-heat pads, warmed fluids during Sx
-incubators -good airflow that avoids drafts -avoid plucking excess feathers |
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Name some unique features of avian skin.
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-very thin and inelastic (tears easily)
-limited nerve and blood supply (minimal bleeding when cut) -uropygial glands present in many birds (can become blocked) -patagial membranes (necessary for flight) -brood patches |
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What are feathers?
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-keratinized epidermis derived from follicles in the dermis
-set in feather tracts (pterylae) -have a blood supply when growing |
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What are the different types of feathers?
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-contour
-down -powder down -filoplumes |
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What is the structure of a feather?
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-base (calamus)
-hollow shaft (rachis) -main feather body (vane) -filaments that make up the vane (barbs) -small hooks that "zipper" the barbs together (barbules) |
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The feathers of the wing are divided into three types - what are they?
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-primary: larger feathers attaching at the radial and ulnar bones
-secondary: feathers inserting at the ulnar bone only -cover: smaller feathers on the cranial wing covering the 1° and 2° feathers |
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Name some unique features of the avian skeleton.
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-thin cortices
-medullary trabecular bone adds strength -simplified with many fused bones -large infraorbital sinuses with many diverticula -birds can move upper and lower beaks -ribs articulate with the sternum and have uncinate processes |
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Name the fused bones in the avian skeleton.
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-thoracic vertebrae (notarium)
-caudal thoracic, lumbar and sacral vertebrae (synsacrum) -caudal vertebrae (pygostyle) -clavicle (furcula) -tibia/fibula (tibiotarsus) -tarsal bone and MT2-4 (tarsometatarsus) -skull -ischium, pubis, ilium (pelvic girdle) |
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What is a common site of fracture in birds that have flown into objects?
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the coracoid
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Which bones are pneumatic in the bird?
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Femur and Humerus
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What blood volume can be obtained from a healthy bird?
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1% of BW (ertythrocytes are short lived and are recycled after 35-55days)
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Describe gas flow through the avian lung.
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-continuous rather than tidal
-countercurrent exchange -airsacs act to ventilate the rigid/small lungs |
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Name some unique features of the avian digestive system.
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-beaks modified for diet
-oropharynx and choanae -oesophagous very distensible -crop (ingluvium) in many birds, not owls -proventriculus and ventriculus w/ koilin lining -large bilobed liver -biliverdin is main bile-pigment -cloaca (coprodeum, urodeum, proctodeum, vent) |
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Name some unique features of the avian urinary system.
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-metanephric kidneys is three lobed
-spinal nerves run through kidney parenchyma -water resorption occurs through the colon -main nitrogenous waste is semi solid precipitate (urates vs urine) |
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What are some unique features of avian eyes?
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-no consensual light reflex; eye movements are independent of each other
-iris muscles are striated skeletal muscle (atropine has no dilating effect) -scleral ossicles (especially raptors) provide stability -extraocular muscles are small (wide range of motion in the neck compensates) -pecten, black vascular structure, extends from optic disk to nourish avascular retina |
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What is a common eye injury in owls?
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detached/torn retina
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What are the unique features of the avian reproductive tract?
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-intracoelomic testes
-protrusible phallus in ratites and anseriformes only -only left ovary functional -sperm can be stored in the uterovaginal junction for weeks -oviposition is controlled by vasotocin and prostaglandins |
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What are the characteristics of psittacines?
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-very muscular tongue
-muscular gizzard (except lorikeets) -infraorbital sinus is extensive and communicates -zygodactyl digits -mobile beak has a craniofacial hinge |
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What are the characteristics of anseriformes?
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-bristled tongues with lamellae on bills
-male ducks have syringeal bullae -trachea in swans is long and coiled -precoccial young -ducks molt all feathers twice yearly |
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What are the characteristics of passeriformes?
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-perching birds have anisodactyl feet
-increased basal metabolic rate (50-60%>) and BT is 2° higher |
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What are the characteristics of columbiformes?
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-no lateral cervical apterium
-well developed powder down -most lack uropygial gland -contour feathers easily shed when handled -take off vertically -cervical vascular plexus aids in thermoregulation -bilobed crop can produce "milk" (desquamated epithelial cells) |
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What are the characteristics of falconiformes and strigiformes?
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-digital flexor tendon locking mechanism
-molt feathers annually -owls have asymmetrical external and middle ears -little delineation between proventriculus and ventriculus -form casts, and caecal "mutes" |
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Name some signs of upper respiratory tract disease in the bird.
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-nasal discharge (serous or caseous)
-sneezing -conjunctivitis and periorbital abscesses -pharyngeal abscesses -Vit A deficiency? |
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Name some signs of lower respiratory tract disease in the bird.
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-open mouth breathing
-exagerated thoracic movements -tail bobbing -respiratory noise -chronic dyspnoea, wheezing, gasping -anorexia -cyanosis -acute dyspnoea (inhalation of FB) |
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Name some signs of digestive or urinary tract disease in the bird.
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-diarrhoea
-undigested food -large mass of droppings -melena -fresh blood -smelly droppings -discolored urates -thick/pasty urates -aerated urates -polyuria -anuria |
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Name some signs of feather pathology in the bird.
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-dystrophic feathers
-retained/thickened sheath -pinched rachis or haemorrhage in the shaft -stress lines/bowed feathers |
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A filling time of the ulnar vein of >1-2seconds suggest ___.
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7% dehydration
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Name some clinical signs indicative of 10% dehydration.
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-eyelid tents when pinched
-sunken eyes -oral mucosae is tacky |
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What is the maintenance fluid volume in birds per day?
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50ml/kg/day
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Outline a fluid therapy regimen for birds.
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Day 1: maint + 50% deficit
Day 2: maint + 25% deficit Day 3: maint + 25% deficit Divide daily volume into 3 or more doses |
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What is the maximum blood volume obtainable in a ill bird?
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0.5% of BW
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A filling time of the ulnar vein of >1-2seconds suggest ___.
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7% dehydration
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Name some clinical signs indicative of 10% dehydration.
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-eyelid tents when pinched
-sunken eyes -oral mucosae is tacky |
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What is the maintenance fluid volume in birds per day?
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50ml/kg/day
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Outline a fluid therapy regimen for birds.
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Day 1: maint + 50% deficit
Day 2: maint + 25% deficit Day 3: maint + 25% deficit Divide daily volume into 3 or more doses. 30ml/kg/site |
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What is the maximum blood volume obtainable in a ill bird?
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0.5% of BW
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Name 3 sites for veinipuncture in the bird.
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-right jugular v.
-medial metatarsal v. -ulnar v. |
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Name 3 sites for subcuticular administration in the bird.
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-propatagium
-interscapular -inguinal |
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Name 2 sites for intraosseous administration in the bird. What sites should you avoid?
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-proximal/distal ulnar bone
-proximal/distal tibiotarsal bone Do not administer in humerus or femur as they are pneumatic bones. |
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What volume can be administered via crop tube in the bird?
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20ml/kg
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Name 8 tools available for diagnosing and treating respiratory disease.
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-nebulization
-oxygen therapy -sinus flush -tracheal wash -air sac catheterization -radiography -laparoscopy/endoscopy |
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What organs/organ systems (12) can be evaluated on a radiograph?
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-musculoskeletal
-cardiac (base width should be approx. 50% of coelomic width at 5th thoracic vertebra -vessels (brachiocephalic trunk) -lungs (reticular pattern of parabronchi) -air sacs visible if inflamed only -crop (on right side of distal neck) -liver (forms hourglass shape with heart) -GIT (gas is abnormal) -kidneys -spleen (round, just right of midline at proventriculus/ventriculus) -ovary -testis |
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How might the testis appear during breeding season?
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-enlarged
-melanized |
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Name 10 common diseases seen in birds.
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-Candidiasis
-nutritional issues -behavioural problems/feather plucking -upper respiratory tract disease -Aspergillosis (rhinoliths, sinusitis, air sacculitis) -Chlamydophilosis -Trauma -Egg binding -Lead/zinc toxicity -Gram negative bacterial infections (resp, GIT, septicaemia) |
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What diseases can cause dyspnoea in the bird?
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-egg binding
-liver disease -ascites -space occupying lesions -cardiovascular disease -lead poisoning -goitre -systemic disease |
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When treating respiratory tract disease, what should also be considered?
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-environment (ventilation, photoperiod, temperature, humidity)
-husbandry (diet, Vit A supp) |
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What are the four forms of Aspergillosis?
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-air sacculitis
-pneumonic form (angiotic - can rupture vessels) -rhinoliths -tracheal or syrngeal granulomas |
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When dealing with a case of suspected aspergillosis, always remember to ____.
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look for a primary disease or predisposing cause.
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What is the causative agent of aspergillosis?
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Aspergillus fumigatus (fungus)
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Infection with chlamydophila requires:
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-virulent strain
-host shedding virus to other immunocompromised animal -close proximity to infected aerosols or fomites |
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Which phase of chlamydophila is susceptible to antibiotics?
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The elementary body
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How might chlamydophila be diagnosed?
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-Cytology: special staining
-Elisa/PCR: variable Sn and Sp, based on human kits -Serology: used to detect exposure -Culture: gold standard but not practicle -DNA PCR on faecal sample: 5 day pooled sample |
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Name two parasitic infections of the respiratory tract.
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-Syngamus trachea (gapeworm)
-Sternostoma tracheacolum (air sac mite) |
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Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease, a ______ virus, favours replicating cells and so attacks ___, ___, and ___.
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circovirus
epithelial cells cells of the gastrointestinal tract the immune system |
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At what age is infection with Psittacine Beack and Feather Disease usually seen?
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Chronic form: 6 months-3 years
Peracute form: nestlings |
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Polyomavirus is caused by a ___.
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papovirus
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Name the three types of birds primarily affected by polyomavirus.
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-budgerigars
-finches -psittacines |
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What are the three forms of poxvirus in birds?
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Cutaneous form: nodular lesions of non-feathered areas
Diptheritic form: lesions on mucous membranes of oropharynx Septicaemic form: rapidly fatal pneumonia, +/- diptheritic enteritis (common in sparrows and canaries) |
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How is Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease diagnosed?
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-clinical signs
-PCR (false negs/pos) -histopathology (intranuclear and intracytoplasmic inclusions) |
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How is Polyomavirus diagnosed?
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--history/clinical signs
-DNA PCR (not diagnostic in finches) -Post mortem: hepatic necrosis, bursal lymphoid depletion, membanous glomerulopathy, basophilicintranuclear and intracytoplasmic inclusion in feather follicles and renal tissue -EM and immunoflorescent stains |
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What is involved in controlling Polyomavirus?
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-quarantine/closed flocks for >60days
-identify and remove shedders by repeated serology -stop breeding/do not use facillities for 3-6 months -vaccinate -isolate budgies from other psittacines |
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What is involved in the prevention of poxvirus?
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-prevent access to biting insects
-clean/disinfect contaminated ares with steam, phenolics, or 1% KOH -vaccinate (no cross immunity to other pox strains, immunity lasts 3-6months only) |
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Outline a treatment plan for pododermatitis.
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-correct perches, diet, and body weight
-disinfect and pad perches (F10, chlorhexidine, povidone iodine -radiograph feet; euthanize if severe osteomyelitis -flush and debride severe lesions and apply ball or donut bandage -systemic Abx and analgesics -topical treatment (DMSO, silver sulfadiazine) |
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What are 4 modifications that may improve behavioral disorders in birds?
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-improve plane of nutrition necessary for feather regrowth (protein, calcium, energy)
-allow exercise, give branches to gnaw, increase owner attention, provide a hide spot -bathe/spray daily -maintain 12hr light/dark cycle with proper UV supplementation |
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Name a skin parasite that causes erythema and hyperkeratosis of the cere, beak, and feet.
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Cnemidocoptes pilae
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What might be the best treatment for xanthomas?
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dietary modification, as the skin may be too friable to allow for excision
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On a fresh faecal smear, you see long, straight, narrow gram positive rods 3-4microns wide and 20-80microns long - what do you suspect?
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megabacteria (Macrorhabdus ornithogaster)
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A young bird presents with a distended crop, regurgitation, and vomiting -what do you suspect?
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Candidiasis (candida albicans)
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You find white plaques in the pharynx of a bird. Name two diseases you suspect.
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-candidiasis
-trichomoniasis |
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What is the causative agent of Pacheco's Disease?
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a herpesvirus (3 strains)
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Describe the clinical presentation of proventricular dilatation disease.
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-regurgitation
-BW loss -altered GIT motility -passing whole seed in faeces -head shaking -ataxia -+/- neurological signs |
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When treating cestode infection in finches do not ____.
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use praziquantel as toxicity has been reported.
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What are 4 treatments for excessive egg laying?
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-Do not remove eggs, encourage brooding
-Artificially reduce day length -Leuprolide acetate (GnRH agonist) -Salpinhohysterectomy |
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Outline a treatment for egg retention.
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-Supportive care: supplemental heat, humidity, oxygen, and 10% Ca borogluconate
-Prostaglandin E2 gell -Vaginal dilation and manual retrieval -Ovocentesis |
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What is the most common fatal obstetrical condition in birds?
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Egg yolk peritonitis
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What deficiencies are seen in most seed based diets?
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-Vitamin A
-Vitamin D3 -Calcium -Iodine -essential amino acids needed for feather quality (Methionine, lysine, cysteine) -Ca:Phosphorous imbalance |
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A commercial formulated diet should make up ____ of a parrot diet.
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≥50%
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Outline a program for converting a bird from an all seed to a formulated diet.
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-correct medical conditions
-monitor body weight -introduce new diet gradually in incremental amounts mixed evenly through ration (ie 10% new diet every few days) -feed 2-3 times daily for 60min rather than ad lib -soak diet in juice, present in novel way -encourage eating through mimicry -conversion can take 6 months or more with condition/plumage improvements visible in 12 months |
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Outline a quality diet for a large parrot.
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-formulated large parrot diet
-dark leafy vegetables and tropical fruit (<10% of diet) -grit -daily fresh water -natural or artificial UVB lighting -increase protein, fat, Vits A, D, and E, Cs and phosphorous during growth, reproduction, and moulting |
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Outline a quality diet for a small parrot.
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-formulated small parrot diet
-if formulated diet not possible, a good quality seed mix with high levels of millet, canary, panicum and <20% sunflower seeds fed for 15min twice daily to be <60% of diet -vegetables and plants such as broccoli, silverbeet, cabbage, milk thistle, dandelion, carrot, sweet potato, corn and capsicum as 10% of diet -organic fruit as 5% of diet -vegetable protein such as peas, broad beans, soy beans, lentils as 25% -grit -Ca supplementation -increase protein for breeding, laying, and growing |
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Outline a quality diet for a lorikeet.
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-commercial nectar mixes with Vit A levels ≤5000 IU/kg
-clean feed containers daily -do not nectar to sit for prolonged periods (bacterial overgrowth such as clostridia) |
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Outline a quality diet for a canary or finch.
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-good quality millet, canary, and panicum seed mix
-vitamin and mineral supplement -vegetables such as broccoli, silverbeet, grated carrot, seeding grass heads -mealworms may b eaten by some species -increase protein content by adding egg and biscuit mixes |
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Outline a quality diet for a bird of prey.
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-whole, noneviscerated rats, mice, small chicks, and rabbit (pigeons carry trichomonas and columbid herpesvirus)
-4% of BW for large raptors daily; 25% for small raptors |
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What should be kept in mind when feeding juvenile rodents and chicks to birds of prey?
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This diet may be deficient in calcium and thiamine.
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Name four diseases that may be a consequence of a high fat diet.
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-lipomas
-fatty liver -atherosclerosis -obesity |
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What is likely the most common dietary deficiency in parrots on a seed based diet? What should be considered when supplementing?
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Vitamin A; supplementation excess can lead to deficiencies in other fat soluble vitamins
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What aresome causes of nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism?
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-diet deficient in Calcium
-diet deficient in Vitamin D3 -improper Ca:Phosphorous ratio -inadequate UVB exposure to activate D3 |
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Why is anisocytosis and polychromasia a common finding in erythrocyte morphology
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The avian erythrocyte has a short lifespan.
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What is analogous to the neutrophil in birds?
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Heterophil
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Avian thrombocytes are capable of _____.
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phagocytosis
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Name 8 reasons to perform a necropsy.
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-establish a diagnosis
-prevent disease transmission -allow treatment or preventative measures to be instituted for in contact birds -prevent the potential for zoonotic transmission -help remedy husbandry or management deficiencies -facilitate self education -aid research -may be necessary for legal reasons |
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What are some general considerations when performing a necropsy on a bird?
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-fresher the better
-always wear a mask; wet feathers after weighing body -sample diseased and healthy tissue -simple instruments needed -record body condition -digital photos |
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The majority of avian opiod receptors are ____ and so _____ should be used for analgesia.
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kappa; butorphanol
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