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79 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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IMPORTANCE RESEARCH
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-Research provides the information required to understand the needs of publics to develop targeted and powerful messages.
-Two standards are commonly considered for this listening process: valid- ity and reliability |
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RESEARCH
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The controlled, objective, and systematic gathering of information for the purpose of describing and understanding.
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ROLE OF RESEARCH
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-First step of public relations program
-Needed to make policy decisions and map out effective communications programs |
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RESEARCH SCOPE (8 Q'S)
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What is the problem?
What kind of information is needed? How will the research results be used Which specific public (or publics) should be reached? Should the organization do the research in-house or hire an outside consultant? How will research data be analyzed, reported, or applied? -Each research circumstance is unique -Depends on the particular subject and situation -Basic questions before formulating research design: How much will the research cost? |
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PR TOOL BAG
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Define audiences and segment publics
Formulate strategy Test messages Prevent crisis Monitor the competition Measure success |
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USES OF RESEARCH
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-to achieve credibility with management
-to define audiences and segment publics - to formulate strategy -to test messages -to prevent a crisis -to monitor competition -to sway public opinion -to generate publicity -to measure success |
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MONITORING THE COMPETITION
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Keeping track of what the competition is doing
-News sources -Google Alerts -RSS – Real Simple Syndication |
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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
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-“Soft” data
-Usually uses open-ended questions, unstructured -Exploratory in nature; probing, fishing-expedition type of research -Usually valid, but not reliable -Generally uses nonrandom samples -Rarely projectable to larger audiences -Examples: Focus groups; one-on-one, in-depth interviews; observation; participation; role-playing studies; convenience polling -(1) content analysis, (2) interviews, (3) focus groups, (4) copy testing, and (5) ethnographic techniques. |
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QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
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-"hard" data
-Usually uses close-ended questions, requires forced choices, highly structured -Descriptive or explanatory type of research -Usually valid and reliable -Usually projectable to larger audiences -Generally uses random samples -Examples: Telephone polls, mailed surveys, mall intercept studies, face-to-face interviews, shared cost, or omnibus studies; panel studiesp.124 |
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3 TYPES OF SECONDARY RESEARCH
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-Archival research
-library and online databases -the worldwide web |
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ARCHIVAL RESEARCH
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-researching organizational materials
-Such materials may include an orga- nization’s policy statements, speeches by key executives, past issues of employee newsletters and magazines, reports on past public relations and marketing efforts, and news clippings. -Archival research also is a major component in audits that are intended to determine how an organization communicates to its internal and external publics. |
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LIBRARY AND ONLINE DATABASES
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-Online databases such as ProQuest, Factiva, and LexisNexis contain abstracts or full text of thousands, or even millions, of articles.
-Some common reference sources used by public relations professionals include the Statistical Abstract of the United States. Online databases are available on a subscription basis and usually charge by the number of minutes the service is in use. |
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Public relations departments and firms use online databases to...
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-Research facts to support a proposed project or campaign that requires top man- agement approval
■ Keep up-to-date with news about clients and their competitors ■ Track an organization’s media campaigns and competitors’ press announcements ■ Locate a special quote or impressive statistic for a speech or report ■ Track press and business reaction to an organization’s latest actions ■ Locate an expert who can provide advice on an issue or a possible strategy ■ Keep top management apprised of current business trends and issues ■ Learn about the demographics and attitudes of target publics |
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The following are some of the online databases commonly used in public relations:
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-Burrelle’s Broadcast Database contains the full-text transcripts of radio and televi- sion programs within 24 hours after they are transmitted. Sources include ABC, NBC, CBS, CNN, National Public Radio, and selected syndicated programs.
■ Dow Jones Factiva News/Retrieval electronically transmits up-to-the-second global coverage of business news, economic indicators, and industry and market data. ■ LexisNexis includes millions of full-text articles from magazines, newspapers, and news services including the full text of the New York Times and the Washington Post |
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CONTENT ANALYSIS
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-Content analysis is the systematic and objective counting or categorizing of informa- tion.
-In public relations, content analysis is often used to measure the amount of media coverage and the content of that coverage. -By analyzing the media coverage given to an organization’s competitors, a public relations professional can learn about the competition’s marketing strategies, strengths, and weaknesses. |
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INTERVIEWS
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-As with content analysis, interviews can be conducted in several different ways. Almost everyone talks to colleagues on a daily basis and calls other organizations to gather information. In fact, public relations person- nel faced with solving a particular problem often “interview” other public relations pro- fessionals for ideas and suggestions.
-many public relations firms will conduct short interviews with people in a shopping mall or at a meeting. This kind of interview is called an intercept interviewp. -The intercept interview is considered by researchers to be highly unscientific and unreliable. |
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FOCUS GROUPS
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A good alternative to individual interviews is the focus group. The focus group tech- nique is widely used in advertising, marketing, and public relations to help identify atti- tudes and motivations of important publics. Another purpose of focus groups is to formulate or pretest message themes and communication strategies before launching a full campaign. Focus groups usually consist of 8 to 12 people who represent the characteristics of the target audience, such as employees, consumers, or community residents.
A focus group, by definition, is an informal research procedure that develops qual- itative information rather than hard data. |
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COPYTESTING
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-All too often, organizations fail to communicate effectively because they produce and distribute materials that the target audience can’t understand. In many cases, the mate- rial is written above the educational level of the audience.
-In health public relations, readability is crucial to enhancing health literacy so that individuals can make smart health decisions. |
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ETHNOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
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-public relations often takes a page from anthropology to conduct research. One tech- nique is observation of individual or group behavior
-One director of public relations, for example, wanted to know how effective bulletin boards were in terms of informing employees in an industrial plant, so he stationed staff near bulletin boards to record how many employees actually stopped and read something off the board. In another sit- uation, a public relations representative sat in a coffee house for most of one day to gain insights about the types of customers who came in, how much they spent, and how long they stayed. |
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RANDOM SAMPLING
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Effective polls and surveys require a random sample. In statistics, this means that every- one in the targeted audience (as defined by the researcher) has an equal or known chance of being selected for the survey. This is also called a probability sample.
In contrast, a nonprobability survey is not random at all. Improper sampling can lead to misleading results. The most precise random sample is generated from lists that have the name of every person in the target audience. |
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SAMPLE SIZE
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-in any probability study, sample size is always a big question. National polling firms usually sample 1,000 to 1,500 people and get a highly accurate idea of what the U.S. adult population is thinking.
-In public relations, the primary purpose of poll data is to get indications of attitudes and opinions, not to predict elections. Therefore, it is not usually necessary or practi- cal to do a scientific sampling of 1,500 people. |
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5 QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION GUIDELINES
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-carefully consider wording
-avoid loaded questions -consider timing and context -avoid the politically correct answer -give a range of possible answers |
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VALIDITY
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-is achieved when research measures what it purports to measure.
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RELIABILITY
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-is achieved when very similar results are obtained when a study is repeated.
-For example, we cannot use a thermometer to gauge wind speed because it measures temperature, not wind speed. |
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VALUE OF PLANNING
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-Before any public relations activity can be implemented, it is essential that considerable thought be given to what should be done and in what sequence to accomplish the organization’s objectives.
-The second step of the public relations process, following research, is program planning. In the RACE acronym mentioned in Chapter 1, this step was labeled “Action”. -public relations planning should be strategic. -A practitioner must think about a situation, analyze what can be done about it, cre- atively conceptualize the appropriate strategies and tactics, and determine how the results will be measured. Planning also involves the coordination of multiple methods—social media, news releases, special events, Web pages, press kits, news conferences, media inter- views, brochures, newsletters, speeches, advocacy ads, and so on. |
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MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVE (MBO)
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-One popular approach to planning
-provides focus and direction for formulat- ing strategy to achieve specific organizational objectives. 1. client/employer objectives 2. audience/publics 3. audience objectives 4. media channels 5. media channel objectives 6. sources and questions 7. communication strategies 8. essence of the message 9. nonverbal support. |
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STRATEGIC PLANNING MODEL
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-a practitioner has in place the general building blocks for planning. These building blocks serve as background to create a specific plan.
-Its organizational model makes sense to professionals and clients alike, moving both parties toward the clear situation analy- sis needed to make planning relevant to the client’s overall objectives. FACTS -category facts -product/service issues -competitive facts -customer facts GOALS -business objectives -role of public relations -sources of new business AUDIENCE -target audiences -current mindset -desired mindset KEY MESSAGE -main point |
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ELEMENTS OF A PROGRAM PLAN
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-A public relations program plan identifies what is to be done, why, and how to accom- plish it. By preparing such a plan, either as a brief outline or as an extensive document, the practitioner can make certain that all the elements have been properly considered and that everyone involved understands the “big picture.”
1. Situation 2. Objectives 3. Audience 4. Strategy 5. Tactics 6. Calendar/timetable 7. Budget 8. Evaluation |
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SITUATION
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-first step in the elements of a program plan.
-Valid objectives cannot be set without a clear understanding of the situation that led to the conclusion that a public relations program is needed. -Loss of market share and declining sales often require a remedial program. The Butterfinger candy bar brand, for example, was highly popular over its 80-year history, but lost consumer loyalty and store shelf space in recent years because of competition and the proliferation of candy options in convenience stores. Butterfinger brand was considered venerable but out of date, especially for the target market of candy-loving 20- to 27-year-old males. |
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OBJECTIVES
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-second step in the elements of a program plan
A stated objective should be evaluated by asking: (1) Does it really address the situation? (2) Is it realistic and achievable? (3) Can success be measured in meaningful terms? -An objective is usually stated in terms of program outcomes rather than communication outputs such as news releases created. -This is accomplished by such tactics as news releases, special events, and even a YouTube video. -Informational Objectives Many public relations plans are designed primarily to expose audiences to information through key message points and to increase awareness of an issue, an event, or a product. -One difficulty with informational objectives is measuring how well a particular objective has been achieved. -Motivational Objectives Although changing attitudes and influencing behavior are difficult to accomplish in a public relations campaign, motivational objectives are much easier to measure. |
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AUDIENCE
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-third step in the elements of a program plan
-Public relations programs should be directed toward specific and defined audiences or publics. -In other words, public relations practitioners target specific publics within the gen- eral public. -This is done through market research that can identify key publics by such demographics as age, income, social strata, zip code, education, and existing owner- ship or consumption of specific products. |
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STRATEGY
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-fourth step in the elements of a program plan
-A strategy describes how and why campaign components will achieve objectives. A strategy provides guidelines and key message themes for the overall program, and also offers a rationale for the actions and program components that are planned. -Key Messages Public relations plans, as part of the strategy, often contain a listing of key messages that the campaign wants to get across to the target audiences and the media. -A New Frontier for Strategy One of the tendencies in human nature that is shared among public relations professionals is a blind faith in common sense as well as a tendency to use a “same-old, same-old” approach to strategies. |
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TACTICS
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-fifth step in the elements of a program plan
-Tactics, in contrast to strategies, are the nuts-and-bolts part of the plan. They describe the specific activities that put each strategy into operation and help to achieve the stated objectives. -In the public relations field, the implementation of various tactics is the most visible part of any plan. -Tactics use various methods to reach target audiences with key messages. |
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CALENDAR/TIMETABLE
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-sixth step in the elements of a program plan
-Depending on the objectives and complexity of the program plan, a campaign may last less than three months. Other programs may take more than a year to implement all the strategies and tactics required to accomplish program objectives. -Program planning should take into account when key messages are most meaningful to the intended audience. -Other kinds of campaigns depend less on environmental or seasonal context. |
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BUDGET
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-seventh step in the elements of a program plan
-No program plan is complete without a budget. Both clients and employers ask, “How much will this program cost?” In many cases, the reverse approach is taken, in which organizations establish an amount they can afford and then ask the public relations staff or firm to write a program plan that reflects the amount allocated. A budget is often divided into two categories: (1) staff time and (2) out-of-pocket expenses. |
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EVALUATION
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-eight step in the elements of a program plan
-relates directly back to the stated objectives of the pro- gram. -it’s important to have a good idea of what metrics you will use to evaluate whether the plan’s objec- tives have been met. Again, evaluation criteria should be realistic, credible, and spe- cific. The evaluation section of a program plan should restate the objectives and then name the evaluation methods to be used. -Evaluation of an informational objective often entails a compilation of news clips and an analysis of how often key message points were mentioned. |
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MONITORING THE COMPETITION
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Keeping track of what the competition is doing
News sources Google Alerts RSS – Real Simple Syndication Internet Dow Jones Burrelles Luce Social Media Radian6 |
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PREVENTING A CRISIS
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An estimated 90% of organizational crisis are caused by internal operational problems rather than by unexpected natural disasters or external issues.
Uncover trouble spots and public concerns before they become news. |
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MESSAGE TESTING
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Determine which message is most salient to a target audience
EX:American Diabetes Association Obesity campaign |
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FORMULATE STRATEGY
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US Census Bureau
iCount Online and oral English and Spanish versions This was made for the iCount Video Competition to promote awareness and understanding of the 2010 Census, specifically in Athens, Georgia and at the University of Georgia. We asked students some general questions about the 2010 Census to get an idea of what people already knew about the Census and what was important to them in their community. |
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RESEARCH AND UPPER MANAGMENT
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Management wants facts, not guesses and hunches
You will have greater accountability and credibility Reality check |
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ARCHIVAL RESEARCH
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Researching organizational materials
Past policy statements Speeches by key executives Past issues of employee newsletters News clippings Past PR and marketing campaigns |
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USING ONLINE DATABASES
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Research facts to support proposals to management
Track competitor’s media campaigns and press releases Track press and business reaction Locate experts Learn about demographics and attitudes |
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QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
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QUALITY
Relies less on numbers and statistics and more on interpretation Research Methods: Content Analysis In-depth interviews Focus Groups Copy Testing Soft data Usually open-ended questions Exploratory in nature |
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QUANTITATIVE METHODS
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-LARGE QUANITY
-Random sampling -1,500 completed respondents: Intercept interview Telephone surveys Mail surveys On-line surveys |
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ONLINE SURVEYS
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Very targeted
Quick response Easy tabulation Follow-up On-line companies Survey monkey Fluid surveys |
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PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION
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Inform
Persuade Motivate Achieve Mutual Understanding |
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PUBLIC RELATIONS MEDIA MODEL
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Mass Communication
high tech perceptually based low social presence Personalized Communication low tech experientially based high social pressure |
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GOALS OF COMMUNICATION
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To be an effective communicator
1.What constitutes communication and how people receive messages 2.How people process information and change their perceptions 3.What kinds of media and communication tools are most appropriate for a particular message |
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MESSAGE CONTENT
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Appropriate
Meaningful Memorable Understandable Believable |
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OBJECTIVES OF A COMMUNICATOR
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Message Exposure
Accurate dissemination of the message Acceptance of the message Attitude Change Change in overt behavior |
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INTEGRATED PUBLIC RELATIONS MEDIA MODEL
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PUBLIC MEDIA
-Build awareness; Enhance credibility -Publicity/advertising/ advertorials/product placements in Newspapers Magazines Radio Television Paid advertising Transit media Out-of-home media (Billboards, posters, electronic displays) Directories Venue signage Movie theater trailers, advertising. CONTROLLED MEDIA -Promotion; Provide detailed information. -Brochures Newsletters Sponsored magazines Annual reports Books Direct mail Exhibits and displays Point-of-purchase support DVDs/Videobrochures Statement inserts Other collateral or printed ephemera Advertising specialties INTERACTIVE MEDIA -respond to queries; Exchange information; Engage users. E-mail, instant, text and microblog messages E-newsletters, e-zines Automated telephone call systems Web sites, blogs Vodcasts/podcasts Games Web conferences, webinars, webcasts Information kiosks Internets and extranets Social networking sites Forums (chats, groups) Media sharing sites Paid text/display |
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INTEGRATED PUBLIC RELATIONS MODEL CONT.
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EVENTS
-Motivate participants; Reinforce existing beliefs, attitudes -Meetings/conferences Speeches/presentations Government or judicial testimony Trade shows, exhibitions Demonstrations/rallies Sponsored events Observances/anniversaries Contests/sweepstakes Recognition award programs ONE ON ONE -Obtain commitments; Negotiation, resolution of problems Personal visits/lobbying Correspondence Telephone calls |
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PAYING ATTENTION TO THE MESSAGE
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PASSIVE AUDIENCES
-Individuals in this category pay attention to a message only because it is entertaining and offers a diversion. -Passive audiences use communication channels such as billboards or radio spots that they can briefly notice while they are doing something else. -For this reason, passive audiences need messages that have style and creativity. The person must be lured by photos, illustrations, and catchy slogans ACTIVE AUDIENCES -These people are already interested and engaged, and are in search of more sophisticated, supplemental information. A person actively seeking information may attend a talk or begin following experts on Twitter who offer useful arguments and links to fellow advocates of a shared policy position. THE CONCEPT OF TRIGGERING EVENTS Professionals should build triggering events into their planning to cause people to act on their latent willingness to behave in a certain way. A triggering event, for example, might be rapid response to a natural |
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UNDERSTANDING THE MESSAGE
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Communication is the act of transmitting information, ideas, and attitudes from one person to another. Communication can take place, however, only if the sender and receiver have a common understanding of the symbols being used
-use symbols acronyms and slogans -avoid jargon -avoid cliche and hype words -avoid euphemisms -avoid discriminatory language |
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5 STAGES OF THE MESSAGE ADOPTION PROCESS
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1. awarness
2.interst 3.evaluation 4.trial 5.adoption |
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HOW DECISIONS ARE INFLUENCED
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awarness stage:Mass media vehicles such as advertising, short news articles, feature stories, and radio and television news announcements are the most influential.
interest stage:There is reliance on mass media vehicles, but individuals actively seek information on the Web and pay attention to longer, in-depth articles evaluation, trial, and adoption stagesPersonal experience, group norms, and opinions of family and friends become more influential than mass media. |
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EFFECTIVE USE OF LANGUAGE
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-Words are the most common symbols. The degree to which two people understand each other is heavily dependent on their common knowledge of word symbols.
-Even if sender and receiver speak the same language and live in the same country, the effectiveness of their communication depends on such factors as education, social class, regional differences, nationality, and cultural background. |
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WRITTING FOR CLARITY
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-The nature of the audience and its literacy level are important considerations for any communicator. The key is to produce messages that match, in content and structure, the characteristics of the audience.
-Another approach is to apply readability and comprehension formulas to materi- als before they are produced and disseminated. |
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AWARNESS
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Person becomes aware of idea/product
Advertisement News story Mention on nightly news Posting in a a chat group |
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INTEREST
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Individual seeks more information about idea/product
Order a brochure Read in-depth article Google search |
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EVALUATION
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Person evaluates idea/product on the basis of how it meets specific needs and wants
Feedback from family and friends |
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TRIAL
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Person tries the product/idea on a experimental basis
Using a sample Witnessing a demonstration Making qualifying statements such as “I read that . . . “ |
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ADOPTION
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Individual begins to use the product on a regular basis
Or integrates the idea into his or her belief system The “I read that . . . “ becomes “I think that . . .” |
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8 BASIC EVALUATION QUESTIONS
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Was the activity or program adequately planned?
■ Did the recipients of the message understand it? ■ How could the program strategy have been more effective? ■ Were all primary and secondary audiences reached? ■ Was the desired organizational objective achieved? ■ What unforeseen circumstances affected the success of the program or activity? ■ Did the program or activity fall within the budget set for it? ■ What steps can be taken to improve the success of similar future activities? |
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PUBLIC RELATIONS EFFECTIVENESS YARDSTICK
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Evaluation goals for public relations programs can be grouped at three levels of measurement..
ADVANCED Measuring Behavior Change AttitudeChange Opinion Chang INTERMEDIATE Measuring Retention Comprehension Awareness Reception BASIC Measuring Targeted Audiences Impressions Media Placements |
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MEASUREMENT OF MESSAGE EXPOSURE
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-The most widely practiced form of evaluating public relations programs is the com- pilation of print and broadcast mentions, often called “clips.”p.194
Large companies with regional, national, or even international outreach usually retain monitoring services to scan large numbers of publications. It’s also possible to have such serv- ices monitor television newscasts in major markets, local and national talk shows, Internet chat groups, podcasts, and even blogs. -The result of all this electronic research is the ability for the organization or its public relations firm to do a fairly accurate count of how many media stories are gen- erated by the program or campaign. -media impressions -tracking online visitors -advertising value equivalency (AVE) -requests and 800 numbers -return on investment (ROI) |
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MEASUREMENT OF AUDIENCE
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-A higher level of evaluation is needed to determine whether the audi- ence actually became aware of the message and understood it.
-At this level, public relations practitioners measure whether target audience groups actually received the messages directed at them: whether they paid attention to those messages, whether they understood the messages, and whether they have retained those messages in any shape or form. -The tools of survey research are needed to answer such questions. Members of the target audience must be asked about the message and what they remember about it. -Public awareness of which organization sponsors an event also is important. |
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MEASUREMENT OF AUDIENCE ATTITUDES
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-A number of intervening variables may account for changes in attitude, of course, but statistical analysis of variance can help pinpoint how much the change is attributable to public relations efforts.
-Advanced evaluation designs can even control for the effect of all the measurement, which has its own impact on audiences. |
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MEASUREMENT OF AUDIENCE ACTION
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-The ultimate objective of any public relations effort, as has been pointed out, is to accom- plish organizational objectives.p.203
-The objective of an amateur theater group is not to get media publicity; the objective is to sell tickets. -Thus, public relations efforts ultimately are evaluated on how they help an organization achieve its objectives. |
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STRATEGIC CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
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Strategic—for the purpose of achieving particular objectives
■ Management—planned, deliberate action ■ Competition—striving for the same object, position, or prize as others ■ Conflict—sharp disagreements or opposition resulting in a direct, overt threat of attack from another entity |
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THREAT APPRAISAL MODEL
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Assessment of the demands that threat makes on the organization
What resources are available to deal with the threat |
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CONTINGENCY CONTINUUM
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This continuum from pure advocacy to pure accommodation forms the foundation for identifying the stance of an organization toward a given public at a given time.
The matrix, or list of possible variables, that influences an organization’s response is helpful in understanding inputs into the complex decision-making process. Depending on circumstances, the attitudes of top management, and the judgment of public rela- tions professionals, such factors may move the organization toward or away from accommodation of a public. |
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CONFLICT MANAGEMENT LIFE
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Shows the “big picture” of how to manage a conflict
-PROACTIVE PHASE -STRATEGIC PHASE -REACTIVE PHASE -RECOVERY PHASE The cycle of conflict depicts the four phases in conflict management experienced by public relations professionals. Typically, events move through time from left to right along the life cycle. At the end of the cycle, the process begins all over again on the left side of the cycle. |
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ISSUES MANAGEMENT APPROACH
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The cycle of conflict depicts the four phases in conflict management experienced by public relations professionals. Typically, events move through time from left to right along the life cycle. At the end of the cycle, the process begins all over again on the left side of the cycle
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VARIABLES AFFECTING RISK PERCEPTIONS
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Risks voluntarily taken tend to be accepted. Smokers have more control over their health situation, for example, than airline passengers do over their safety. ■ The more complex a situation, the higher the perception of risk. Disposal of radioactive wastes is more difficult to understand than the dangers of cigarette smoking.p.257
Familiarity breeds confidence. If the public understands the problem and its factors, it perceives less risk. ■ Perception of risk increases when the messages of experts conflict. ■ The severity of consequences affects risk perceptions. There is a difference between having a stomachache and getting cancer. Suzanne Zoda, writing on risk communication in Communication World, gives some suggestions to communicators: ■ Begin early and initiate a dialogue with publics that might be affected. Do not wait until the opposition marshals its forces. Vital to establishing trust is early contact with anyone who may be concerned or affected. |
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VARIABLES AFFECTING RISK PERCEPTIONS CONT.
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■ Actively solicit and identify people’s concerns. Informal discussions, surveys, interviews, and focus groups are effective in evaluating issues and identifying outrage factors. ■ Recognize the public as a legitimate partner in the process. Engage interested groups in two-way communication and involve key opinion leaders. ■ Address issues of concern, even if they do not directly pertain to the project. ■ Anticipate and prepare for hostility. To defuse a situation, use a conflict resolution approach. Identify areas of agreement and work toward common ground. ■ Understand the needs of the news media. Provide accurate, timely information and respond promptly to requests. ■ Always be honest, even when it hurts.
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HOW TO COMMUNICATE IN A CRISIS
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Take responsibility. An organization should take responsibility for solving the problem. Communicate with key publics. Set up a central information center. Never say, “No comment.” A Porter Novelli survey found that nearly two-thirds of the public feel that “no comment” almost always means that the organization is guilty of wrongdoing. p.261
Don’t obscure facts and try to mislead the public. Provide a constant flow of information. When information is withheld, the cover-up becomes the story. Monitor news coverage and telephone inquiries. Be familiar with media needs and deadlines. Designate A single spokesperson |
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REPUTATION MANAGMENT
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-track record of an organization in the public’s mind.
-Reputation scholars offer three foundations of reputation: (1) economic performance, (2) social responsiveness, and (3) the ability to deliver valuable outcomes to stakehold- ers. R-esearch techniques called reputation audits can be used to assess and monitor an organization’s reputation. Reputation repair and recovery is a long-term process, and the fourth phase in the con- flict management life cycle is called the recovery phase. |
