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70 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Consequences of Information Overload
Impairs critical thinking
Promotes indecisiveness
Encourages information bulimia
Group attention deficit disorder;
Information overload is
a problem of too much openness in a system
Ways of Coping with Information Overload
Screening information
Shutting off technology
Specialize
Selectivity—
Limiting the search
Narrowing the search-
Information underload is usually a problem of
too much closeness in a system
Confirmation Bias
 The tendency among all of us to seek information that confirms our beliefs and attitudes and to ignore or distort information that contradicts our currently held beliefs and attitudes
 The perpetuation of unwarranted beliefs is the natural result of confirmation bias
Rationalization of disconfirmation is
the invention of superficial, even glib alternative explanations for information that contradicts a belief. telescope
How to Fight Confirmation Bias
 Seek disconfirming information and evidence
 Present it to the group in an assertive manner
 Play devil’s advocate
 Gather allies to help challenge confirmation bias
False dichotomies are
the tendency to view the world in terms of only two opposing possibilities when other possibilities are available, and to describe this dichotomy in the language of extremes.
Combating false dichotomies
• Be suspicious of absolutes
• Employ the language of provisionalism
Interferences are
conclusions about the unknown based on what is known. 24hr grocery store example
Sources of Inferential Errors
 Faulty information base
 Misinformation
 Seriously limited information base
 We make inferences based on extremely limited or faulty information without even realizing that we have made a guess or not identified a fact
 We may stack one faulty inference upon another
 Unrepresentativeness
 Vividness effect
graphic, outrageous events draw our attention and stick in our minds – the potential single dramatic example sticking in our minds, promoting us to overvalue such an event and undervalue statistical probabilities of such an event occurring
Definition of Groupthink
A mode of thinking that people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, when the members’ strivings for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action
Identification of Groupthink
 Overestimation of group’s power and morality - Arrogance
 Illusion of invulnerability
 Inflated sense of power/ Unquestioned belief in the inherent morality of group
 Closed-Mindedness – Clinging to Assumptions
 Rationalizations
 Negative stereotyped views of the enemy as weak, stupid, puny, or evil.
 Pressures toward uniformity – Presenting a United Front
 Self-censorship, indirect - Censorship of contradictory opinion
 Illusion of unanimity
 Direct pressure applied to deviants
 Self-appointed mindguards – information control.
Preventing Groupthink
 Recognize groupthink when it first begins
 Minimize status differences
 Seek information that challenges emerging concurrence
 Develop a norm that legitimizes disagreement
Phases of group decision making & problem solving
 Multiple sequence model
 Functional perspective
Multiple Sequence Model Phases of Group Decision Making
 Groups move along three activity tracks—task, relational, and topic
 Tracks may not proceed along these tracks at the same rate or according to the same pattern
 Some groups devote a lot of time to relational (social) activities of groups before proceeding to task discussion
Functional perspective: being systematic
 Guidelines, not commandments
 Five critical decision-making functions
o Problem analysis
o establishment of evaluation criteria
o Generatin of alternative solutions
o Evaluation of positive consequences of solution
o Evaluation of negative consequences of solution
 More productive and results in better decisions than relatively unstructured discussions
Steps of the Standard Agenda (Dewey)
 Problem identification: question of fact, value, or policy
 Problem analysis
 Solution criteria
 Solution suggestions
 Solution evaluation and selection
 Solution implementation
What are the questions? Under problem identification (standard Agenda 1st step)
 A question of fact asks whether something is true & to what extent
 A question of value asks for an evaluation of the desirability of an object, idea, event, or person.
 A question of policy asks whether a specific course of action should be undertaken to solve a problem.
Functional Perspective
 Effective group decision making requires an analysis and understanding of a problem before members search for solutions
 Effective decision-making groups normally engage in creative exploration of unusual, even deviant, ideas during initial discussions
 Variations in the quality of decisions are related to ability to perform five functions: problem analysis, setting evaluation criteria, generating alternative solutions, evaluating positive consequences of decisions, and evaluating negative consequences
Force Field Analysis under solution implementation; follow-through (6th SA)
 Method for planning implementation of a group solution or decision
• Driving forces- those that encourage change
• Restraining forces- those that resist change
Factors that Influence Our Resistance to Change in a Group
 People are more likely to accept change when they have had a part in planning and decision making
 Changes are more likely to be accepted if they do not threaten security of group members
 Also, when the need for change affects individuals directly
 Also, when change is open to revision and modification
 Degree, rate, and desirability of the change
Program Evaluation Review Technique (PERT)
 Determine what final step should look like
 Specific events that must occur before final goal is reached
 Put events in chronological order
 If necessary, construct a diagram of process
 Generate a list of activities, resources, and materials required between events
 Develop time line for implementation
 Match time estimate for implementation of solution with deadlines
 Decide which group members will have which responsibilities
Murphy’s Law states
that anything that can go wrong likely will go wrong-somewhere, sometime. A common mistake of groups is failure to plan for Murphy’s Law to minimize the chance of error or mishap.
Guidelines for Reaching Consensus
 Follow Standard Agenda
 Establish a cooperative group climate
 Identify pluses and minuses
 Discover all concerns of group members; attempt to resolve them
 Avoid adversarial, win-lose arguments
 Request a “stand aside” (a group member may have reservations but does not wish to block the group choice)
 Avoid “coin flips”/swaps
 If consensus is impossible, seek 2/3 agreement
Pros of Participation
 Increases members’ allegiance to the group because they feel they are active contributors
 Full resources of the group are utilized
 Increases commitment of group to implement decisions because members all had a say in the decision
Steps to Promote Constructive Participation from Group Members
 Encourage contributions from low participators
 Make issues and problems for discussion relevant to interests of low participators
 Give responsibility for certain tasks
 Establish a cooperative group climate
 Encourage devil’s advocacy and dialectical inquiry
Five Criteria for Evaluating Information
 Credibility: is it believable
 Currency: Is it up to Date
 Relevance: Looking for logical connections
 Representativeness: Reflecting the facts (a single example or statistic may not accurately reflect what is true)
 Sufficiency: When enough really is enough (extraordinary claims require extraordinary proof)
Creative Problem Solving
 Creativity is more perspiration than inspiration
 It is spurred by challenges
 It flourishes in cooperative, not competitive, environments
 It requires sound ideas, not just imaginative ones
 Creativity requires many ideas
 Creativity requires breaking mindsets and thinking “outside the box”
Complaints Associated with Group Meetings
 Unclear purpose of the meeting.
 Participants are unprepared.
 Key individuals are absent or late.
 Discussion drifts into irrelevant conversation on unrelated topics.
 Some participants dominate the conversation and stifle discussion.
 Decisions made at meetings are not implemented.
The Chair: Controlling the Meeting
 Don’t call a meeting unless there is not good alternative
 Contact every participant
 Prepare a clear agenda and distribute to all members 3 days in advance
 Move the agenda forward
 Designate specific time allotment for every discussion item
 Reserve a few minutes at the end of the meeting to see if objectives were met.
 Distribute the minutes of the meeting as soon as possible
Guidelines for Brainstorming
 Don’t evaluate ideas while brainstorming
 Don’t clarify or seek clarification of an idea
 Encourage zany ideas
 Do not engage in task-irrelevant discussion
 Stay focused on the topic
 Expand on the ideas of other group members
 Record all ideas without reference to who contributed the idea
 Encourage participation from all group members
Nominal Group Technique
 Individuals work by themselves to generate lists of ideas on a problem
 They then convene in a group to record ideas generated so all can see ideas
 Interaction occurs only to clarify ideas, not to discuss merits and demerits
 Individuals then select their five favorite ideas, ranking them from most to least favorite
 Rankings are then averaged; ideas with highest averages are the ones selected by the group
Effective Brainstorming
• First involve an individual, then group, followed by a brainstorming session
• Provide a well defined problem in advance
• Members meet to share ideas and generate new ones
• Members are then given opportunity to contemplate ideas on their own
• Members should not be strangers & they should belong to a long standing group
• Receive training & experience on how to brainstorm
• Trained facilitator
Nature of Power
 Group-centered. Leaders require the support of followers to remain in power
 No group member is completely powerless. All members have some influence, even if it is to resist or defy the group
 Can discuss degrees of power rather than being powerful or powerless
five power resources
Information Power – Restricted or scarce
Expertise Power – Knowing and showing
. Rewards and Punishments Power – Carrots and Sticks
Personal Qualities
Legitimate Authority
Verbal and Nonverbal Contempt
 Power struggles do not always end in physical violence; the more likely consequence of power imbalance in groups is verbal and nonverbal expressions of contempt
 Contempt is the verbal or nonverbal expression of insult that emotionally abuses others
 Power imbalances create a climate that encourages physical, verbal, nonverbal aggression
Verbal Dominance
 In general, group members who use more powerful language patterns are perceived to be more credible, attractive, and persuasive than those using less powerful language.
 Verbal dominance is also indicated by competitive interrupting, contradicting, and sheer quantity of speech.
 Monopolizing conversation in these ways has obvious power implications.
Imbalance of Power
 When power is inequitably distributed in a group and dominance becomes the focus, system-wide power struggles often ensue
 Significant power disparities often foster violent or aggressive transactions
 Violence becomes a system wide problem
 At each level, the most powerful person seeks to control the next least powerful person
Transacting Power in Groups: Five Responses
 Compliance
 Alliance
 Resistance
 Defiance
 Significance
One Type of Response: Compliance
 The process of consenting to the dictates and desires of others
 Obedience to authority
 Conformity to group norms
Second Type of Response: Alliance
 Alliances are associations in the form of subgroups entered into for mutual benefit or a common objective
 Goal: to increase power and control decisions made in the group when group members do not agree on issues of significance
 Coalitions are formed not just to advance the goals of allied members but also to prevent the attainment of noncoalition members’ goals
 Rival coalitions may encourage risky, poorly conceived decisions; external problems may be ignored
Rewards
 An extrinsic reward motivates us to behave or perform by offering us an external inducement such as money, grades, recognition.
 An intrinsic reward is enjoying what one does for its own sake.
 An intrinsic reward motivates us to continue doing what brings us pleasure.
Ways to Deal with Resistance in Groups
 Confront the strategy directly
 Thwart the enabling process
 Give clear directions regarding specific tasks
Defiance: Overt Noncompliance
 Is an overt form of communicating noncompliance
 When nonconformity is a purposeful, conscious, rebellious act against the wishes of a group leader or the group itself, it becomes defiance
DESC- framework for learning assertiveness
 Describe
 Express
 Specify
 Consequences
Conflict is
the expressed struggle between two interconnected parties who perceive incompatible goals and interference from each other in attaining those goals
Destructive and Constructive Conflict
• Moderate amounts of conflict can be a constructive force in groups if the conflict is managed competently.
• The principal difference is how competent the communication is when transacting the conflict.
• Destructive conflict is characterized by dominating, escalating, retaliating, competing, defensive, and inflexible communication patterns.
• Constructive conflict is characterized by communication that is we oriented, de-escalating, cooperative, supportive, and flexible.
• The principle focus is on trying to achieve a solution between struggling parties that is mutually satisfactory to everyone.
COLLABORATE is the most constructive and effective style of conflict management.
 This is the desired goal in all conflict situations
 Put our frustration aside, look at the situation
 Discuss our different viewpoints calmly and professionally
 Work together so that we are both happy with the final outcome
 Work on reframing the conflict, think laterally and come to agreement
 Negotiate. What are the points you can concede in order to obtain agreement for what is most important. Both sides give and take some until both are satisfied.
Accommodating
 Accommodating style yields to the concerns and desires of others.
 Someone using this style shows a high concern for social relationships but low concern for task accomplishment.
 Yielding on issues of incidental concern to your group but of major concern to other parties while holding firm on issues of importance to your group usually achieves mutually advantageous outcomes
Compromising
 We give up something to get something. Someone using this style shows a moderate concern for both task and social relationships in groups.
 When an integrative solution can’t be achieved, when a temporary settlement is the only feasible alternative or when the issues involved are not considered critical to the group, comprising can be useful
Avoiding
• A communication style of withdrawing from potentially contentious and unpleasant struggles.
• Someone using the avoiding conflict style shows little concern for both task and social relationships in groups.
Competing
• Someone using a competing or forcing style shows high concern for take but low concern for relationships in groups.
• Someone using a competing or forcing style shows as a means of furthering personal more than group goals (Me-Not-We-Orientation)
• Making friends and developing a positive social climate are secondary and expendable
Low-context style has a message content orientation
• Listener knows very little
• Communication is verbally precise, direct, literal, and explicit
• Individualist, low-context culture favor direct competitive or compromising styles
High-context communication has a message context orientation
• Listener is already ‘contexted’ and does not need to be given much background information
• Communication is indirect, imprecise, and implicit
• Collectivist, high-context cultures favor avoiding or accommodating styles
 A routine task is
one in which the group performs processes and procedures that have little variability and little likelihood of change
 A non-routine task is
one that requires problem solving, has a few set procedures, and has a high level of uncertainty.
Values Conflict
• Values are the most deeply felt views of what is deemed good, worthwhile, and right.
• Beliefs are what we think is true and probable.
• Values conflicts are especially difficult to manage when members of different cultures clash over divergent worldviews
Negotiation
• Negotiating strategies are the ways we transact these joint decisions when conflict arise.
• Conflict spirals- the escalating cycle of negative communication that produces destructive conflict.
• Reformed sinner strategy initially competes or acts though, then cooperatives and relaxes demands.
Tit for Tat: Do Unto others
• An act of cooperating; the other party follows suit & cooperates you continue to do the same (you reciprocate)
• Will maintain cooperation once initiated because you reciprocate, thereby encouraging further cooperation from the other party
• Hard Bargainers/tough bargainers
o Negotiations as a contest of wills
o Negotiate from strength approach to conflicts of interest
o Competing/forcing strategy
o Can be abusive or sarcastic in attempt to gain advantage
o Me-Not-We orientation
o Concessions take on appearance of selling out
o Issuing ultimatums are common tactics
• Soft Bargainers
o Recognize the high cost of hard bargaining on people
o Making an agreement and remaining friends is more important
o Draw back – they may give away to much
Principled Negotiation: interest-Based Bargaining
 Four principles
 Remaining Unconditionally Constructive
 BATNA
– Four principles: Appropriate Rules
• People: Separate the people from the problem
• Interest: Focus on interest, not positions.
• Options: Generate a variety of possibilities before deciding what to do
• Criteria: Insist that the result be based on some objective standards
 Remaining Unconditionally Constructive: Sound Judgment
o Make choices and take only those actions that benefit both you and the other party in the dispute, regardless of whether the other parties reciprocate.
 BATNA
o Best
o Alternative
o To
o Negotiated
o Agreement
Managing Your Anger
 Reframe self-talk
 Listen non-defensively
 Deliberately calm yourself
 Find distractions
Managing the Anger of Others
 Be asymmetrical- do not strike back in kind
 Validate the other person
 Probe
 Distract (Shifting the other person’s focus)
 Assume a problem orientation
 Refuse to be abused
 Disengage
 Three primary characteristics of electronic technologies
o Members spread across multiple locations
o Members are often from a diverse backgrounds
o Memberships seems to be less stable