Qualitative And Quantitative Measurements ! Reading Notes*

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Why measure?

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-we use measurements in our daily lives
-measurement extends our senses
-social measures provide information about social reality
-measurement helps observe things that are otherwise invisible

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There are three differences between quantitative and qualitative approaches to measurement…

First Difference …

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1. First difference involves timing.

-Quantitative researchers think about variables, convert them into specific actions during planning stage that occurs before, and is separate from gathering or analyzing data.

Qualitative researchers Measurement occurs in data collection process

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Second Difference…

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2. Second difference involves data itself.

-Quantitative researchers develop techniques that produce quantitative data (data in form of numbers)

-moves from abstract ideas to numerical values (numbers represents the ideas)

-Qualitative researchers have their data sometimes in numbers but usually in worlds, actions, sounds, symbols, images (pictures, maps)

-does not use single medium (numbers) but uses many different mediums

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Third Difference...

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3. Third difference is how the links are made

-quantitative researchers review concepts before they gather any data, make measurement techniques that bridge concepts and ideas

-qualitative researchers develop concepts during data collection

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Parts of the measurement process

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-when researcher measures, they take the concept and develop a measure (eg technique) that they can use to watch the idea empirically

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Quantitative researchers use ...

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deductive route (abstract idea -> measurement procedure -> end with empirical data that represents ideas)

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Qualitative researchers use ...

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inductive route (empirical data -> abstract ideas -> relate ideas ad data -> end with mixture of ideas and data)

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both types of research use two processes in measurement…

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…:)

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Conceptualization:

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The process of developing clear, rigorous, systematic conceptual definitions for abstract ideas/concepts

-process of thinking through the meaning of a construct

-you must become very clear and state what you mean for others to see (very detailed)

-process of taking a construct and refining it by giving a theoretical definition

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Conceptual definition:

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a careful, systematic definition of a construct that is explicitly written to clarify ones thinking. It is often linked to other concepts or theoretical statements
-definition in abstract, theoretical terms (ideas or constructs)

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Operationalization:

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the process of moving from the conceptual definition of a construct to a set of specific activities or measures that allow a researcher to observe it empirically (i.e., its operational definition)
-links conceptual definition to a specific set of measurement techniques, the construct’s…

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Operation definition:

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The definition of a variable in terms of the specific activities to measure or indicate it with empirical evidence
-specific operations of action a researcher carries out e.g Survey questionnaire,

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Quantitative Conceptualization and Operationalization

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:)

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Quantitative measurement process:

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conceptualization -> operationalization -> application of the operational definition or measuring to collect the data.
-developed ways to link abstract ideas to measurement procedures that will produce quantitative info about empirical reality

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there are three levels to consider when measuring two variables that are linked together in theory and hypothesis…

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most abstract level : researcher is interested in causal relationship between two constructs, called a …

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Conceptual hypothesis:

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A type of hypothesis in which the researcher expresses variables in abstract, conceptual terms and expresses the relationship among variables in a theoretical way.

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Level of operational definition, researcher tests a…
Empirical hypothesis:

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a type of hypothesis in which the researcher expresses variables in specific terms and expresses the association among the measured indicators of observable empirical evidence.

-to determine degree of association between indicators
this level is where questionnaries are used

-The third level is concrete empirical world (if operational indicators of variables eg questionnaires are linked to construct eg racial discrimination they will tell you what happens in social world, relates to conceptual level

-the three levels are linked deductively. Moving from abstract to concrete.

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Qualitative Conceptualization and Operationalization

Conceptualization:

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-refine working ideas during data collection and analysis process
-process of forming coherent theoretical definitions as one organizes the data
-as they get data, they make new concepts, and relationships between the concepts
-conceptualization is determined by the data

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Operationalization:

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-describes how specific observation and thoughts about data contribute to working ideas that are basis of conceptual definitions and theoretical concepts
-it is after the fact description, data is gathered for operationalization

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Reliability and Validity

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-central issues in measurement,

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reliability:

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the dependability or consistency of the measure of a variable
-means dependability or consistency. Same thing is repeated under identical or seminal conditions

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Validity:

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A term meaning “truth” that can be applied to the logical tightness of experimental design, the ability to generalize findings outside a study, the quality of measurement, and the proper use of procedures
-truthfulness, refers to match between construct….eg) refers to how well an idea about reality “fits” with actual reality

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Reliability and Validity in Quantitative research:

Reliability:

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means dependability, numerical results produced by indicator do not change because of measurement instrument.
(eg. Weight scale always measuring the same weight, if you are doing the same thing.)

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How to improve reliability: there are 4 ways to increase reliability

1st Way

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1. Clearly conceptualize constructs
-increases when single construct is being measured (less noise)

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2nd Way

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2. Use a precise level of measurement
- indicators at higher or more precise levels of measurement are more likely to be realible then less precise levels
eg. If you have choice of measuring prejudice as either high or low, or from 1 to 10 varying levels of prejudice

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3rd Way

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3. Use multiple indicators
Multiple indicators: Many procedures or instruments that indicate, or provide evidence of, the presence or level of a variable using empirical evidence. Researchers use the combination of several together to measure a variable

-using two or more indicators of same construct is better then using one ☺
eg. Having 3 indicators for variable of Racial-Ethnic prejudice:
first indicator: attitude question on a survey
second indicator: you watch research participants from various races interact over three days
third indicator: you create an experiment, (you see if people are more likely to vouch for people of their own race)
-multiple indicators allow researcher to take measurements from wide range , are more stable then with just one

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4th Way

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4. Use pilot tests, pretests, and replication
-reliability can be proved by using pretest or pilot version of a measure first

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Validity:

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quantitative is concerned with measurement validity
-when an indicator is valid, it is valid for particular purpose and definition (indicator to measure prejudice with teachers, wouldn’t be as valid to measure prejudice with police officers

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Measurement Validity:

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how well an empirical indicator and the conceptual definition of the construct that the indicator is supposed to measure “fit” together.
-refer to how well the conceptual and operational definitions mesh with eachother
-better fit, greater validity (for eg. You cannot measure intelligence using hair colour, i.q tests would be better)

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Types of Measurement Validity

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:) yayyyyy GO STUDY STUDY!

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Face Validity:

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a type of measurement validity in which an indicator “makes sense” as a measure of a construct in the judgement of others, espeacially those in the scientific community.
-judgement by scientific community that the indicator really measures the construct, collective consensus

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Content Validity:

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Measurement validity that requires that a measure represent all the aspects of the conceptual definition of a construct
-special type of face validity, space containing ideas and concepts
*Has 3 steps… Specify the content in a constructs definition, Sample from all areas definition, Develop an indicator that taps all of the parts of the definition

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Criterion validity:

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measurement validity that relies on some independent, outside verification
-validity of an indicator is verified by comparing it with another measure of same construct that is already accepted (there are two types of this!)

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Concurrent validity:

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Measurement validity that relies on a pre-existing and already accepted measure to verify the indicator of a construct

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Predictive validity:

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Measurement validity that relies on the occurance of a future event or behavior that is logically consistent to verify the indicator of a construct

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Realiability and Validity in Qualitative research:

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-qualitative researchers do use the two but it isn’t that important, they apply the principles differently

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Reliability:

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means dependability or consistency
-want to be consistent, believes relationship between researcher and subject matter should be growing, evolving process
-they think different researchers using different measures will get different results

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Validity:

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means truthfulness
-qualititative researchers are more interested in Authenticity: giving fair, honest, and balanced account of social life from the viewpoint of someone who lives it everyday
-they are truthful and make sure their understanding, ideas and statements about social world and what is occurring in it is real

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Other uses of the terms reliability and validity…

Reliability :

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the method of conducting a study or the results from it can be reproduced or replicated by other researchers

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Internal Validity:

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The ability of experimenters to strengthen a causal explanations logical rigour by eliminating potential alternative explanations for an association between the treatement and the dependent variable through an experimental design
-there are no errors internal to design of research project

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External Validity:

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The ability to generalize from experimental research to settings or people that differ from the specific conditions of the study
-used in experimental design

-high external validity=results can be generalized to many situations, many groups of people

low external validity=results can only be applied to specific setting

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Statistical Validity:

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This is achieved when an appropriate statistical procedure is selected and the assumptions of the procedures are fully met

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Levels of measurement:

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A system that organizes the information in the measurement of variables into four general levels, from nominal level to ratio level

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Continuous variables:

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Variables measured on a continuum in which an infinite number of finer gradations between variable attributes are possible

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Discrete variables:

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variables in which the attributes can be measured only with a limited number of distinct, separate categories

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Four levels of measurement

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-idea of levels of measurement comes from difference between continuous variables and organizes types of variables for their use in stats….

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Nominal measures:

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the lowest, least, precise level of measurement for which there is only a difference in type among the categories of a variable

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Interval measures:

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a level of measurement that identifies differences among variable attributes, ranks and categories and that measures distance between categories, but there is no true zero

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Ratio measures:

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the highest, most precise level of measurement for which variable attributes can be rank ordered, the distance between attributes precisely measured, and an absolute zero exists