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47 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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PSYCHOLOGY
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The scientific study of behavior and mental processes
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CASE STUDY
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A descriptive research method in which a single individual or a small number of persons are studied in great depth, usually over an extended period of time.
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EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
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The only research method that can used to identify cause-effect relationships between two or more variables
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INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
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In an experiment, a factor or condition that is deliberately manipulated in order to determine what causes any change in another behavior or condition
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What is Required in ethical research?
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The American Psychological Association now has strict ethical standards for the use of human and animal participants in research experiments, the welfare and well being of participants
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NEURONS
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A specialized cell that conducts impulses through the nervous system and contains three major parts - a cell body, dendrites, and an axon
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NEUROTRANSMITTERS
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Neural transmission (information being sent from neuron to neuron) works at both the electrical and chemical levels. When the space between two neurons is small enough the electrical signal can simply jump the gap and continue on its way. However, when the gap is too large, the signal must be converted from electricity to chemicals. These chemicals are neurotransmitters, which can be defined as chemicals released by neurons which carry information from one neuron to another. These chemicals are then read or received by a neuron's synapses.
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PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
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part of the autonomic nervous system. Its main function is to conserve/restore your body's energy.
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ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM (EEG)
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is a recording of the electrical waves of activity that occur in the brain, and across its surface.
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CEREBAL CORTEX
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The thin outer layer of the brain's (approximately 2 mm) cerebral hemispheres that acts as the main control center and information processing center. The cerebral cortex is not required for performing many simple actions, but is crucial for creating new episodic memories, the fancier associations, and many new movement programs. The cerebral cortex is made up of two different sub-components: the motor cortex and the sensory cortex.
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ENCDOCRINE SYSTEM
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Information travels through our bodies in two forms; as electrical signals, or as chemical signals. The chemical signals are created and carried throughout the body using the endocrine system. This system works more slowly than the electrical signals, and is made up of glands that secret hormones (the carriers of the information) in the bloodstream
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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
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First proposed and studied by Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is one form of learning in which an organism "learns" through establishing associations between different events and stimuli. For example, when a neutral stimulus (such as a bell) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (such as food) which produces some involuntary bodily response all on its own (such as salivating), the neutral stimulus begins to trigger a response by the organism similar (some salivation) to that produced by the unconditioned stimulus. In this way, the organism has "learned" that the neutral stimulus equals something good (just like the unconditioned stimulus).
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CONDITIONING RESPONSE
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In classical conditioning, the conditioned response (CR) is the learned response (reflexive behavior) to a conditioned stimulus (CS). This response is almost identical to the Unconditioned Stimulus except that now the reflexive behavior occurs in response to a conditioned stimulus as opposed to an unconditioned stimulus. For example, a dog salivates (UR) from the smell of a bone (US) naturally, without any conditioning. Once some neutral stimulus (CS) (for example, a "beep" that the dog would not naturally or normally cause the dog to salivate) has been paired with the bone for some time, the dog will salivate (CS) when the "beep" occurs.
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DISCRIMINATION
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Discrimination is a term that is used in both classical and operant conditioning. In classical conditioning, it refers to an ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (CS) and other, similar stimuli that don't signal an unconditioned stimulus (US).
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POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
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A stimulus which increases the frequency of a particular behavior using pleasant rewards.
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PUNISHMENT
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Any stimulus that represses a behavior. It is important to note that punishment is not the same as negative reinforcement. Is failing a test negative reinforcement or punishment? If it motivates you to study more it is negative reinforcement (i.e., it increases the behavior of studying). However, if you feel that studying is actually hurting your performance (due to, for example, test anxiety) you will perceive that failing the test was due to studying too hard.
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OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
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The process of acquiring information by observing others
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SHORT TERM MEMORY
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Short Term Memory is the part of the memory system where information is stored for roughly 30 seconds. Information can be maintained longer with the use of such techniques as rehearsal.
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SEMATIC MEMORY
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Semantic memory is one of the three types of long-term memory (the others are episodic and procedural) in which we store general world knowledge like facts, ideas, words, problem solving, etc.
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SCHEMA
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a cognitive system which helps us organize and make sense of information.
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PRO ACTIVE INTERFERANCE
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Difficulty in learning new information because of already existing information.
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RETRO ACTIVE INTERFERANCE
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Retroactive interference is when a person has difficulty recalling old information because of newly learned information.
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UNCONSCIOUS
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According to Freud, there are different layers or levels of human consciousness. At the surface (or top level) is the conscious; just below this is the preconscious; and at the very bottom is the unconscious. We may define the unconscious; the deepest level of consciousness, as a pool of unwanted or unacceptable ideas, wishes or desires, memories, and emotions. These unwanted things are pushed down into the unconscious so that we do not have to deal with them and so they do not interfere or cause problems in our daily lives. However, they can be traumatic if they surface and enter either the preconscious or the subconscious. For example, Freud believed that people often have horrifically sexual fantasies that are so difficult to accept and deal with (and considered wrong within the boundaries of a moral society) that they are hidden away in the unconscious so that we don't think about them and feel bad every day. However, if these fantasies rise to a higher level of consciousness it could result in us feelin
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EGO
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According to Freud, the ego is the part of personality that helps us deal with reality by mediating between the demands of the id, superego, and the environment. The ego prevents us from acting on every urge we have (produced by the id) and being so morally driven that we can't function properly. The ego works according to the reality principle which helps us direct our unacceptable sexual and aggressive urges to more acceptable targets. For example, when you walk down the street and see an extremely attractive person, the ego, working on the reality principle, helps us realize that it is not socially acceptable to cross the street, grab the person, and have sex with them. Instead, the ego tells us that there will be other, more appropriate people, places, and times to fulfill these needs.
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ID
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According to Freud, humans have three main components to their personality that cause us to behave the way we do and make us who we are. One of these components, the id, is the part that you may consider that little devil sitting on your shoulder trying to get you to do all those things that feel good, even if they are wrong. More specifically, the id is the part of the human personality that is made up of all our inborn biological urges that seeks out immediate gratification (guided by the Pleasure Principle), regardless of social values or consequences. For example, when you are in a bar and see a really attractive person who stirs some sexual feelings in you, the id is what is pushing you to simply go over to this person, grab them, and ravage them right there. Of course you know that this is completely unacceptable behavior so you don't do it, but the id doesn't care about that. It just wants what it wants no matter what.
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PHALLIC STAGE
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One of Freud's five psychosexual stages of development where pleasure is centered around the genital region. The phallic stage is the third stage of development and usually is between ages 3 and 7. It is this stage where the child learns that there is a difference between males and females.
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SELF-ACTUALIZATION
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Maslow believed that there are five types of needs that motivate us in our every day lives. At the top of Maslow's hierarchy are self-actualization needs where people have reached their full potential and have become all that they can be. According to Maslow, few people in history are said to have self-actualized.
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PROJECTIVE TEST
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A test which requires an individual to respond to indistinct stimuli. The individual's interpretation about the stimuli is meant to reveal aspects of their personality. The Rorschach, which has individuals describe various ambiguous inkblot pictures is a classic example of a projective test.
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DSM VI
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DSM-IV stands for the title of the book, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fourth Edition). This book is published by the American Psychological Association and is the primary book used in diagnosing psychological problems. You can think of this book as the "guide" for diagnosing psychological disorders used by clinical psychologists, counselors, and therapists. The DSM-IV has all the definitions of disorders, criteria for diagnosis, etc.
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OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DISORDER
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An anxiety disorder where individuals are unable to stop thinking the same thoughts or performing the same tasks over and over again. A common obsessive-compulsive disorder is frequent hand washing. Individuals attempt to alleviate their fear or anxiety by performing certain rituals (e.g.., washing hands 63 times before leaving the house). These rituals are to the extent that they have trouble carrying on with their daily activities.
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MAJOR DEPRESSIVE DISORDER
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Major depressive disorder is classified as a mood disorder in which people have periods of hopelessness and sadness that last for more than 2 weeks and don't appear to have a specific cause (although this varies). This is more than "having the blues" but is a period of intense psychological pain that includes hopelessness, feeling worthless, loss of pleasure in things that previously were pleasurable, etc.
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HALLUSCINATIONS
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Although we think most people know what hallucinations are, here is a brief explanation. Hallucinations can be defined as false sensory (visual, auditory, etc.) experiences, such as seeing something a person although nobody is really there, hearing a voice although nobody is speaking, feeling someone touch who despite being alone, etc.
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CATATONIC SCHIZOPHRENIA
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People with this type of schizophrenia exhibit unusual motor behaviors, and act in bizarre ways. There are two type of behavioral classes that the catatonic schizophrenic will engage in; catatonic excitement and catatonic stupor. During catatonic excitement, the schizophrenic will act in bizarre, high-strung like behaviors such as pacing quickly, babbling, talking incoherently, etc., while during catatonic stupors, the person will assume one position and remain that way for long periods of time (sometimes for hours). Even more interesting is the fact that the person will typically remain aware of what is going around them despite being frozen.
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PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE
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This psychological perspective originated from Freudian psychoanalysis which emphasizes the unconscious components such as conflicts, instinctual energies, etc. Many of Freud’s students of psychoanalysis broke off and went their own way, but kept the main aspect of psychoanalysis (the unconscious). As a result, the term psychodynamic is a more general term that incorporates all of these components, but keeps the unconscious as a primary element. The more hard line, scientifically focused psychologists often dismiss this perspective specifically because of the emphasis on the unconscious – their claim is, since you can’t observe it, you can’t measure it, so how can it be science. You be the judge.
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PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
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Psychosexual Stages of Development: Freud believed there to be five stages of psychosexual development: Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latent and Genital. At each of these stages, pleasure is focused on a particular part of the body. Too much or too little pleasure in any one of these stages caused a fixation which would lead to personality or psychological disorders. For example, too much pleasure in the phallic stage could lead to obsessive masturbation and sexual dysfunction as an adult.
The first stage is called the Oral Stage, characterized by a preoccupation with oral pleasures such as nursing and sucking. This is followed by the Anal Stage, where the main focus is on eliminating or retaining feces. The third stage is the Phallic Stage, where children derive pleasure from the genitals, and develop a desire for the opposite sex parent. Society dictates that these inappropriate feelings be repressed, and when done successfully, is followed by the Latency Stage where sexual urges lie dormant until the next stage |
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PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
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Psychosocial Stages of Development were developed by Erik Erikson (1902 - 1994), a developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst. There are 8 stages spanning birth to old age. Each of the eight stages is marked by a conflict which must be successfully resolved in order to attain a favorable outcome, which he called "virtues."
The first stage of development (from birth to 18 months) is Trust vs. Mistrust. At this stage, the child learns to trust that the world is a safe place and that he can rely on his caregivers to provide for his needs, or to mistrust the world because his needs are not met. Successful resolution brings about the virtue of Hope. The second stage (18 months to 3 years) is Autonomy vs. Shame. As the child learns to walk and begins to explore his environment, he learns autonomy as he develops more control over his bodily functions and his surroundings, or shame and doubt over his ability. If successfully resolved, the child develops the virtue of Will. The third stage (3 to 5 years) |
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TERATOGEN
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A teratogen is anything that can disrupt the development of an embryo or fetus in a pregnant mother's womb. A teratogen may cause a birth defect, malformation, or terminate the pregnancy altogether.
It can be in the form of harmful drugs or chemicals, like birth control pills, nicotine, alcohol, or some types of medication. Exposure to infectious agents like German Measles or Chicken Pox has also been found to have teratogenic effects. Physical factors such as exposure to x-rays or increased body temperature from taking hot baths may also have negative effects on the developing fetus. Certain medical conditions of the mother like diabetes or hypothyroidism may also lead to defects or fetal deat |
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AINSWORTH SECURE ATTATCHMENT
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Mary Ainsworth (1913 - 1999) was a developmental psychologist who became known for her work concerning early emotional attachment of babies to their primary caregivers.
In order to explore Attachment patterns, Ainsworth devised an experimental procedure called "A Strange Situation." The procedure begins with the child and his mother in a room where the child is allowed to play and explore alone. A stranger enters the room, talks to the mother, and approaches the child while the mother leaves the room. After a short period, the mother comes back and reunites with the child. The mother and the stranger leaves, and the child is left to play alone. The stranger then comes back and attempts to interact with the child. The mother returns for a second reunion as the stranger leaves. Throughout the procedure, the child is observed on four aspects: play behavior, reactions to departure and to the mother's return, and behavior when the stranger is around. Ainsworth categorized the nature of the children's atta |
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FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE
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According to Piaget's theory of cognitive development, when a person gets to be approximately age 12, they acquire the ability to think logically about abstract concepts. They can extrapolate about events that occurred at different times (does not have to be occurring right then and there), think about people that are not there, etc.
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POSTCONVENTIONAL LEVEL
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is the third and final level of Kohlberg's moral development taxonomy where individuals enter the highest level of morale development. People who have reached this stage of development are concerned with the innate rights of humans and guided by their own ethical principles. An individual in this stage of development may believe it acceptable to steal experimental animals in order to save the animals' lives. They believe it to be the moral thing to do even though they are breaking state and federal laws.
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GENDER SCHEMA THEORY
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gender development that combines social learning and cognitive learning theory. Thus, gender roles are formed in part by observing others and learning from how others act, and from accomplishing different cognitive tasks specific to cultures that are done by men and by women.
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INTEGRITY
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then that person has established a complete sense or feeling that his or her life has been meaningful and worthwhile. This stage occurs in the latter years of life and is reached when people do not look back on their lives and dwell on mistakes, or feelings of regret for things they did or did not do. The alternative in this stage according to Erikson's theory is despair.
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GENERATIVITY
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According to Erik Erikson's theory of adolescent development, people at certain ages have the impulse to become more productive and do things more "worthwhile" in their lives. For example, a young adult may feel that it is time to get married, have a family, and raise children; they may feel the need to start doing work that is more fulfilling and creative, etc. These feelings of generativity are most prominent during middle adulthood.
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POSTCONVENTIONAL LEVEL
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the third and final level of Kohlberg's moral development taxonomy where individuals enter the highest level of morale development. People who have reached this stage of development are concerned with the innate rights of humans and guided by their own ethical principles. An individual in this stage of development may believe it acceptable to steal experimental animals in order to save the animals' lives. They believe it to be the moral thing to do even though they are breaking state and federal laws.
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ALZHIEMERS DISEASE
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a form of dementia, or decreasing mental capacity, most often seen in people older than 65. Some of the earliest signs include memory loss and confusion. Other signs as the disease progresses are aggression and mood swings and withdrawal from normal activities. People with Alzheimer’s require a great deal of care. Left alone they may forget to eat for days, try to cook and eat things that aren’t edible, take walks and not know how to get home, or create dangerous situations with matches or cigarettes. There is little known about the cause of Alzheimer’s but it has gotten more attention in support of researching the disease in recent years. Scientists do generally agree that there is a genetic predisposition for some to get the disease.
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POST-TRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER
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is a psychological disorder where individuals suffer nightmares and other types of emotional distress from a traumatic past experience or set of experiences. Stimulus that reminds them of the event or events can cause flashbacks and irritability.
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GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME
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Hans Selye was a young medical doctor who noticed that a lot of people were experiencing similar types of symptoms but did not have any physical cause for the problems. Over time, he came to realize that the problems were caused by stress. He later determined that the body has a natural, adaptive response to stress that is composed of three stages: alarm, resistance, exhaustion. When a person gets to the exhaustion stage, they may experience severe physical problems.
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